1. Module 21 - Information Processing Part 2
The Phenomenon of Memory

2. Memory: Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of informationWe
Encode: process information into the memory system by extracting meaning
Store: retain encoded information over time
Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory
Retrieve: access information in the memory
External events  sensory memory  short term/working memory  long term memory
Automatic or effortful encoding into working memory
Effects of timing of rehearsals
Primacy and recency effect
The effect of imagery
The effect of mnemonic devices
Chunking and hierarchies

3. Review: Working or Short Term Memory
A small fraction of sensory information receives attention and effortful encoding
STM is limited in duration (a few seconds)
STM is limited in capacity (about 7 bits of information and a few seconds of duration)
Better echoic (auditory) than iconic (visual)
Working memory interacts with long-term memory
Unless we meaningfully encode or rehearse that information – it can disappear quickly

4. ?Today’s interesting questions?
When we learn new things, do we forget some of the old things “to make room”?
Can we have a “memory pill” to help us remember better?
No matter what they say about “timing of rehearsals,” do you feel that just before an exam, when you are stressed out, you learn much better?
What were you doing when you heard about 9/11 WTC explosions?
Why can’t you remember things that happened before the age of 3?
Did you ever have the sense that you have “lived this moment before” ?

5. Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage system of skills, knowledge, experiences
Essentially limitless
Storage of information in LTM can be learned

6. How do we store memories?
Memory is constructive
we don’t record information like a videotape
each time we remember, we reconstruct the memory
There is a biological basis for memory: memory (or neural) trace
Neural change occurs in the synapses: experience modifies brain’s neural network

7. How do we form “neural traces”?
“Long term potentiation” (LTP) is the neural basis for learning
Increased activity in a particular neural pathway  strengthening neural interconnections
Serotonin is released for activating learning
Sensitivity of the synapse increases  less serotonin activates the receiving neuron  receiving neuron may have more receptor sites
Once LTP has occurred, memory cannot be erased by trauma
California sea slug – study of Kandel and Schwartz  large neurons with only 20K of them

8. Stress hormones and memory
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
Some stress hormones boost learning and retention:
When excited or stressed, more glucose energy is released to fuel brain activity
Amygdala (center for processing emotions) boosts activity in brain’s memory-forming areas.
Flashbulb memory: we vividly remember details of extremely stressful situations

9. Amnesia No ability to form new memories No sense of elapsed time
However, able to learn complex skills  with no awareness of learning
IMPLICATION:
Conscious recall may be relatively independent of unconscious learning

10. Implicit and explicit long-term memory
Explicit Memory (declarative memory)
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Left hippocampus processes verbal memory, right hippocampus processes visual and spatial memory
Implicit Memory (procedural memory)
memory of how to do something
retention of information independent of conscious recollection
Cerebellum processes implicit memory
Infantile amnesia

11. Long-Term Memory Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Implicit
(procedural)
Without conscious
Facts-general
knowledge
Personally
experienced
events
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Classical and
operant
conditioning
effects

12. How do we process Information?
Encoding
Retrieval
the processing of information into the memory system --extracting meaning
The process of accessing information in the memory
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time-- short term or long term

13. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Recall – lay understanding of memory
measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
as on a fill-in-the blank test
Recognition
Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned
as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning
memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time

14. Memories are webs of associations

15. Retrieval Cues Priming Context effects
Happens when an unconscious experience triggers an association of memory
Memory without explicit remembering
Context effects
it helps you to put yourself back in the context where you experienced something.
Deja Vu (French)--already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

16. Experiment: Context effects10 20 30 40
Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts for
hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Percentage of
words recalled
Greater recall
when learning
and testing contexts
are the same

17. Moods and memories Mood-congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
Emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
When upset or depressed, individuals remember upsetting and depressing experiences
When happy, individuals remember uplifting experiences

18. Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material
Make material personally meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words--something already stored
make up story
chunk--acronyms

19. Improve Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation