1. Self-Concept, Motivation, and Well-Being
Chapter 8

2. Introduction
Positive self-concept development is important goal in adapted physical activity
Physical self-perceptions are linked to mental well-being, motivational states, and goal achievement in exercise and sport

3. Self-Concept Theory
Dynamic, multidimensional, interactive, and nonlinear system
Includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral domains in constant interaction
Self-perception influences beliefs, attitudes, and feelings; this in turn affects motivation and action
Carl Rogers - father of self-concept theory

4. Terminology and Assessment Approaches
Cognitive - beliefs about self
Affective - attitudes, feelings, and emotions that are associated with evaluation by self or others
Behavior - thoughts and actions that reflect intention
Self-concept - observable or measurable knowledge that a person holds about the self

5. Identity
Self-knowledge about who one is, what one can do, and selves or roles most central in one’s life
Each self implies different competencies and responsibilities
More complex identify for persons with disabilities because of ways that the disability interacts with other dimensions of self, experience, and society

6. Identity Two approaches to the creation of a self-identity
People choose self-identity as they act through their bodies upon the world, and people experience and comprehend the world through their bodies
Identities only exist as opposites, are multiple and temporal, and designed to propagate difference
Identity as a physically active and healthy person
Disability becomes part of the everyday experience, it is normal and just a fact of life

7. Level of Aspiration
Self-state, specific goal that is set after a first performance of a task
Stating level of aspiration typically improves performance
Individuals with disabilities tend to overestimate or underestimate their abilities
Can be assessed using the “show me” approach

8. Self-Efficacy
Judgment of one’s capability to accomplish a certain level of performance
Level of confidence or certainty of success
Models who have overcome similar problems and barriers can help increase efficacy and feelings of confidence

9. Affective Dimensions of Self
Self-esteem
Perceived competence
Self-perception

10. Self-Esteem
Positive self-regard, self-worth, or overall good feelings about the self
Global self - measurement of overall feelings
Total self - total of all the specific self-perception subscales of an instrument
Influenced by exercise and increased fitness

11. Perceived Competence
Domain-specific self-esteem that relates to ability or skill to perform specific tasks
Harter - perceptions of competence in domain of importance and perceptions of social support impact one’s level of self-worth
Self-perception ratings are the best predictors of global self-worth
Mastery motivational climate

12. Self-Perception
Denotes all kinds of attributes, from global to situation-specific
Practical relevance as teachers and coaches design effective intervention in exercise, sport, and the increasing problem of weight loss and management
Self-perceptions of physical competence are related to favorable life adjustment

13. Behavioral Domain and Achievement
All theories seek to link cognitive and affective aspects of self to motivation and/or achievement behaviors
Cluster of behaviors that relate to initiating and sustaining skill practice and fitness activity can be assessed

14. Achievement Goal Perspectives
Personality orientations that motivate individuals to demonstrate competence and effort in specific contexts
Task orientation - defining success in terms of achieving personal best
Ego orientation - defining success by verifying that one is as good as or better than others

15. Success and Failure
Success is closely associated with feeling good about oneself, one’s team, one’s supports, or specific products and processes
Identify student’s definition of success and failure relative to her or his own goal perspective

16. Assessment Issues
Instruments not normed for individuals with disabilities
Cross-check data from instruments with observations, interviews and diaries or journals
Accurate estimates of feelings by 4 or 5 years
Determination of appropriate instruments

17. Assessment Protocol Identification early in the year
Multimedia and journals
What can you do in the present?
What do you want to do in the future?
Identify problems that physical education can help resolve
Confidentiality - no right or wrong answers and responses are confidential

18. Description of Major Instruments
Harter Self-Perception Instruments
Includes inventory for LD ages 8 to 13
Structured alternative-response format
Global self-worth
Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale
Children and youth ages 10 to 18
Global self-concept and six context-dependent self-concept domains

19. Description of Major Instruments
Physical Self-Description Questionnaire
Measures eleven components for individuals ages 12 and over
Utilizes a Likert response format
Physical Self-Perception Profile
Measurement of global physical self-worth, which contributes to global self-esteem
Four-choice, structured, alternative-response scales

20. Disability, Self-Concept, Self-Esteem
Type of disability
Age at onset of disability
Severity of disability
Gender
Number of years since onset of disability
Support systems
Social status
Peer acceptance
Attitudes
Expectations of significant others

21. Congenital Disabilities
Consistently report lower self-concepts when disability is congenital
Children with LD discount domains in which they experience difficulty
Affects on parenting and family relations
Patterns of sport socilization

22. Acquired Disabilities
Age of onset of disability most important factor
Four years post injury not significantly different from AB peers
Growth through adversity phenomenon
Variability in self-esteem among persons with disabilities parallels that of AB peers

23. Athletes With Disabilities
Self-measures equal to or higher than those of individuals without disabilities
Higher than nonathletes with disabilities
Gains occur during participation and in the motivation that prompts participation
Sport offers positive enhancement opportunities

24. Individuals With Movement Difficulties
Need for addressing self-esteem as well as motor difficulties
Introversion, anxiousness, lower perceived physical competence and social acceptance
Less time in positive social interactions, less time spent in vigorous activity, play less often on large playground equipment
Females lower physical self-perceptions than males
50% of children remain clumsy in adolescence

25. Development of Self-Concept
Formed at home until second grade when school and other interactions begin to exert major influence
Appearance different from peers
More stable and resistant to change as persons grow older
Life stage changes affect self-concept

26. General Principles of Self-Concept Enhancement
Principle of reflected appraisals
Principle of self-attribution
Principle of mastery challenge or perceived competence
Principle of social comparison
Principle of personal meaning

27. Writing Goals and Objectives for the IEP
Problems with self-concept should be addressed in the IEP
Indicators of self-concept can be written as objectives
Videotapes, observation checklists, personal charting, student journals, or portfolios can be used to assess effectiveness of instruction

28. A Self-Perception Model to Guide Pedagogy
Utilize self-perception model to write objectives and plan activities
Variables needing to be addressed
Enjoyment - strong predictor of sport commitment
Personal investment - discounting
Anxiety - both trait and state anxiety need to be addressed
Self-confidence and self-esteem

29. Pedagogy in Relation to Low Self-Concept
Conceptualize individual and small-group counseling as an integral part of physical education instruction
Teach students to care about each other and to show that they care
Emphasize cooperation and social interaction rather than individual performance
Stress the importance of genuineness and honesty in praise

30. Pedagogy in Relation to Low Self-Concept
Build in success through the use of task and activity analysis
Increase perceived competence in relation to motor skill and fitness
Convey that you like and respect students as human beings, for themselves as whole persons, not just for their motor skills and fitness

31. Pedagogy in Relation to Low Self-Concept
Stress movement education and motor creativity rather than sports competition in the early stages of learning
Enhance self-concept by leisure counseling directed toward achieving desired leisure lifestyle
Help students to feel that they are in control of many aspects of their lives

32. Games to Enhance Self-Concept
Work well as “icebreakers”
Do not force participation beyond comfort level
Participate as reflective observer
Self-concept is a developmental process
Mirroring
Snowballs

33. Motivation Theories and Pedagogy
Motivation - forces that cause behaviors or the internal state that focuses behaviors toward goal achievement
Belief that one can actually perform the task or behavior
Motivation to take part in a behavior will not occur in the absence of self-efficacy

34. Competence Motivation Theory
Desire to engage in achievement-oriented activities in which one’s competence can be demonstrated
Persons engage in activity because they feel intrinsically oriented in that area and see themselves as having control
Individuals act in ways that are consistent with their perceived competence, perceived control, and motivation orientations

35. Teacher Expectancy Theory
Persons will perform as they think others expect them to perform
Persons will expect of themselves what others expect of them
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Rosenthal effect

36. Attribution Theory and Training
Relationships between event outcomes, beliefs about causes, and subsequent emotions and behaviors
Explaining success and failure outcomes
Ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck
Persons with disabilities use different attributions to explain success and failure

37. Stress and Coping Theory
Stress - negative responses to harm, threat, or challenge that occur when perceived demands exceed perceived resources
Coping - cognitive appraisal of demands and resources, decision making about needed changes, and assertiveness in making these changes