1. Module 2 Research Strategies
How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
-I-

2. Recap
Intuition may not be good enough: hindsight bias, overconfidence, tendency to perceive order in random events
We must develop a scientific attitude: curious, skeptical, humble – use critical thinking
Knowledge depends on scientific method:
Organize observations into a theory
Formulate testable hypotheses
Operationally define concepts
Test hypotheses
Replicate findings

3. Goals of psychology
To describe human and animal behavior and mental processes
Case study – intensive study of a few cases
Surveys – measures self reports 
WHO AND HOW
Observations (naturalistic)

4. Who do we survey? Population Random Sample
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
Random Sample
each member has an equal chance of inclusion representative of a population

5. How do we ask questions? Wording effects:
How we word our questions influences how people answer them
Example: Dating break-up

6. Description Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Dating behaviors of Koç University students?
Problems?

7. Goals of psychology
To describe human and animal behavior and mental processes
To predict human and animal behavior and mental processes
- Correlational studies: how one phenomenon is associated with (co-occurs with) another phenomenon

8. (positive or negative)
Correlation
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +0.45
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

9. Correlation does not indicate causation
could cause
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression or
(2)
Depression
could cause
Low self-esteem or
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause
and
Depression

10. Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists
Outcome of a tendency to attend to those phenomena that confirms our beliefs
Example: Beliefs about the common cold

11. Goals of psychology
To describe human and animal behavior and mental processes
To predict human and animal behavior and mental processes
To understand / explain human and animal behavior and mental processes
Experimental method

12. Experiment: manipulating and controlling
Manipulate one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
Control all other variables

13. Experimental Method
Amount of alcohol
Reaction time

14. Experimental method - manipulation
Independent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable
the experimental factor that may change in response to the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior, attitude or mental process

15. Experimental Method Experimental group Control group
The group of subjects who experience the treatment, that is, one version of the independent variable
Control group
The group of subjects that experience the condition that contrasts with the treatment
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

16. Experimental Method: Control
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

17. The Classical Experiment
Three essential components
Independent
Variable(s)
&
Dependent
Variable
Pre-test
&
Post-test
Experimental
Groups
&
Control
Dependent variable is measured, a stimulus is presented, and dependent variable is re-measured.
There are two groups of comparable subjects. Only one group is exposed to the stimulus.
Operational definitions are essential.

18. Example
Study: One of the factors that influence aggression is modeling of aggressive behavior by influential individuals.
Hypothesis: Watching a film where the protagonist solves problems through aggressive and violent means will result in an increase in the aggressive behaviors of children IV DV
Manipulation (Experimental stimulus – i.e., film)
Control (through random assignment)

19. Watch a film with no violence
Example
Significant difference is expected
Pretest:
Level of aggressive behavior
Watch a
film with
violent content
Experimental
Group
Posttest:
Level of aggressive behavior
No difference is expected
Significant difference is expected
Watch a film with no violence
Pretest:
Level of aggressive behavior
Posttest:
Level of aggressive behavior
Control
Group
No difference is expected
Time

20. Experimental method: Other methods of control
Double-Blind Procedure
both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Placebo
an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent

21. Some questions about research
Are experiments informative about behaviors in everyday life?
Does culture and gender influence behavior?

22. Ethical Issues in Research
Informed Consent
Risk/Gain Assessment
Intentional Deception
Debriefing
Issues in Animal Research
Should animals be used in psychological and medical research?