1. The History and Scope of Psychology
Module 1
The History and Scope of Psychology

2. The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble
1-1: HOW DO THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE’S THREE MAIN COMPONENTS RELATE TO CRITICAL THINKING?
Curiosity
Skepticism
Humility
Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

3. The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble
Curiosity
Includes a passion to explore and understand the world without misleading or being misled
Let the facts speak for themselves by using an empirical approach
Questions to consider
What do you mean?
How do you know?

4. The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble
Curious Skepticism
Supports questions about behavior and mental processes: What do you mean? How do you know?
THE AMAZING RANDI: Magician and skeptic James Randi has tested and debunked a variety of psychic phenomena.

5. The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble
Humility
Involves awareness of our own vulnerability to error and willingness to be surprised
Openness to new perspectives
One of psychology’s early mottos: “The rat is always right.”

6. The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking refers to careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge by
Examining assumptions
Appraising source(s) of information
Discerning hidden biases
Evaluating evidence, and
Assessing conclusions
Critical thinking in psychology has led to surprising findings, debunked popular presumptions, and resulted in more effective policies.

7. Critical Thinking Determining if flaw in information collection exists
Considering alternative explanations for facts or results
Discarding personal assumptions and biases and view the evidence
CRITICAL THINKING: Analyzing, rather than simply accepting, information
Searching for hidden assumptions and deciding if you agree
Looking for hidden bias, politics, values, or personal connections

8. Psychology’s Roots
1-2: WHAT WERE SOME IMPORTANT MILESTONES IN PSYCHOLOGY’S EARLY DEVELOPMENT?
Fourth century B.C.E.: Aristotle theorized about
Learning and memory
Motivation and emotion
Perception and personality
He didn’t have our knowledge, but he asked the right questions.

9. Psychological Science Is Born: Psychology’s First Laboratory
Wilhelm Wundt
Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany
Seeked to measure “atoms of the mind”
Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology
Elements included carefully measured observations and experiments

10. Psychological Science Is Born: Psychology’s First Schools of Thought
Edward Bradford Titchener
Relied on “self-report” data
Encouraged introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience in reaction to stimuli
Used these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure. This early school of thought was called structuralism.

11. Functionalism: William James
Studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked:
What function might they serve?
How might they have helped our ancestors survive?
This functionalist school of thought was influenced by Charles Darwin

12. Psychology’s First Women
Mary Whiton Calkins
Became memory researcher and first APA female president
Studied with James but was discriminated against and denied PhD

13. Psychology’s First Women
Margaret Floy Washburn
Became second APA female president
Wrote The Animal Mind
Studied with Titchener but barred from his experimental psychology organization

14. Psychological Science Develops: Behaviorism
1-3: HOW DID PSYCHOLOGY CONTINUE TO DEVELOP FROM THE 1920s THROUGH TODAY?
Behaviorism
Defined psychology as “scientific study of observable behavior” without reference to mental processes
Became major force in psychology into 1960s
John B. Watson (classical conditioning) and B. F. Skinner (operant conditioning) dismissed introspection
Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduced famous “Little Albert” experiments

15. Psychological Science Develops: Freudian Psychology
Emphasized ways unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behavior
Freudian psychology was second major force until 1960s

16. Psychological Science Develops: Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology is a historically significant perspective that revived interest in study of mental processes
Focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and on importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied
Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

17. Psychological Science Develops: Modern Definition of Psychology
Mental processes = internal, subjective experience inferred from behavior
Behavior = any action that can be observed or recorded
Psychology = science of behavior and mental processes

18. Contemporary Psychology
1-4: HOW HAS OUR UNDERSTANDING OF BIOLOGY AND EXPERIENCE, CULTURE AND GENDER, AND HUMAN FLOURISHING SHAPED CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology’s pioneers have come from many fields: physiology, philosophy, medicine, and biology.
Like the pioneers, today’s psychologists are citizens of many lands; psychology has spread rapidly with 82 member nations in the International Union of Psychological Science.
Psychology is growing and globalizing.

19. Contemporary Psychology: The Cognitive Revolution
The cognitive revolution began in the 1960s and focus returned to interest in mental processes.
Cognitive psychology continues to scientifically explore ways in which information is perceived, processed, and remembered, and to study the cognitive roots of psychological disorders .
The interdisciplinary field of cognitive neuroscience ties the science of mind (cognitive psychology) and the science of the brain (neuroscience) and focuses on brain activity underlying mental activity.

20. Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics
The big nature–nurture question is longstanding and continues in psychology .
To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth (our nature)?
And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment and experience (our nurture)?
Natural selection: Chance inherited traits aiding survival and reproduction are ones most likely to be passed down.
Why do you think these questions are important?

21. Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics
Plato: Character and intelligence inherited; some ideas inborn
Darwin: Some traits, behaviors, and instincts are part of species
Study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using the principles of natural selection
Behavior Genetics
Aristotle: Content of mind comes through senses
Humans differ because of our differing genes and environments
Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

22. Contemporary Psychology: Cross-Cultural and Gender Psychology
Cross-cultural psychology: Focuses on ways culture shapes behavior, but our shared biological heritage also unites us with underlying universal processes.
Gender psychology: Focuses on differences, knowledge of which is beneficial, but again males and females are overwhelmingly similar psychologically as well as biologically.

23. Contemporary Psychology: Positive Psychology
Martin Seligman a key figure:
Psychology’s first hundred years focused on understanding and treating troubles
Positive psychology instead explores human flourishing
Uses scientific methods to investigate building of good life that engages skill-building and a meaningful life that extends beyond self

24. Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis
1-5: WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S LEVELS OF ANALYSIS AND RELATED PERSPECTIVES?

25. Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis
Each level of analysis is incomplete by itself
Psychology has varied perspectives, each asking different questions
Perspectives complement one another

26. Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Table 1.1

27. Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Subfields
1-6: WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S MAIN SUBFIELDS?
Psychologists united by common quest: describing and explaining behavior and the mind underlying it.
Basic research builds psychology’s knowledge base.
Applied research tackles practical problems.
Range of researchers
Biological psychologists
Developmental psychologists
Cognitive psychologists
Personality psychologists
Social psychologists
Industrial-organizational psychologists

28. Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Subfields
Counseling psychologists help people to cope with challenges and crises.
Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with mental, emotional, behavior disorders.
Psychiatrists, as medical doctors, may prescribe drugs and provide psychotherapy.
Community psychologists work to create social and physical environments healthy for all.
Perspectives range from biological to social, and settings range from laboratory to clinic to office.
Psychologists influence culture and appreciate cultural influences on behavior.