1. Mexico

2. Overview: The Big Picture
System of Government: Presidential
Distribution of Power: Federal System
Electoral System: Mixed System: SMDP and PR
Constitution: Constitution of 1917
Legislature: Bicameral - Chamber of Deputies & Senate
Current Head of State: Enrique Peña Nieto
Head of Government: Enrique Peña Nieto
Current Ruling Party: PRI/IRP
Major Political Parties: PRI/IRP, PAN, PRD

3. Why Study Mexico? (From AP Briefing Paper)
Constitution of 1917 was model for other progressive movements in Latin America
Longest single-party government in the modern world
Mexico political system was very stable during 20th century
Political economy is a classic example of the challenges and prospects of the transition from state-led development to neoliberal economic policy
NAFTA

4. Mexico in Comparative Context (From AP Briefing Paper)
Revolutions: Russian, Chinese, and Iranian
One-Party Rule: Russia China
Relatively unique,
Democratic facade but Mexican transition to democracy did not require building new institutions from scratch (China and Russia), but rather breathing life into preexisting institutions that had been dormant because of one party rule.
Dual-Transition : Russia
From a socialist economy to a market economy AND from authoritarian rule to democracy
Provides a great comparison with Russia
Oil: All
All six countries in AP curriculum are major producers of oil
Mexico contrasts with Iran and Nigeria in that they are not rentier states
Only 7% of Mexico’s export earnings come from oil (Iran: 80% and Nigeria: 90-95%)

5. Newly Industrializing & Less Developed Countries
So far, advanced democracies and communist or post-communist countries
However, vast majority of countries in the world have neither liberal-democratic or communist regimes.
Commonalities:
All struggle with economic issues, including poverty, low GNPs, trade dependency, and weakness of infastrcture.
Most LCD are currently developing fragile democracies.
Many still have dictators, millitary leaders, or monarchs, but industrialization and modernization (higher levels of education wealth) are slowly eroding their power.

6. Economic Development
Economic liberalization, GNP, PPP and per capita GNP
Percentage of Labor Force Occupied
Primary Sector (agriculture)
Secondary Sector (industry)
Tertiary Sector (services)
Theories of Economic Development
Westernization Model
Dependency Theory
*in reality, all are a blend of both

7. Economic Development Political Development
Economic Policies in Less-Developed World
Import Substitution
Export-Oriented Industrialization
Political Development
Democratization
Political liberalization
Failed state

8. Government and Politics in Mexico (Ethel Wood)
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Colonialism to Independence to Revolution to PRI
What was the common thread of power?
Authoritarian…small group of people rule
Major impact on political culture

9. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Legitimacy
Mexican citizens consider government and its power legitimate
Sources of Legitimacy
Revolution of
Admiration of revolutionary leaders, Hidalgo, Juarez, Zapata, Pancho Villa, Lazaro Cardenas
Seen as acceptable path to change, and charisma is highly valued as a leadership characteristic
PRI
Revolution legitimized by the formation of PRI in 1929
Constitution written during this era, three-branches of government, but PRI was intended to stabilize power in the hands of its leaders.

10. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Historical Traditions
Historical traditions divided into three stages of development: Colonialism, chaos of 19th and 20th century, and emphasis on economic development during recent history
Key Concepts:
Authoritarianism
Populism
Power Plays/Divisions within the Elite
Instability and Legitimacy Issues.

11. Political Culture
Strong Sense of National Identity: Mexicans share strong sense of national identification based on a common history, dominant religion and language.
The Importance of Religion
Catholic Church power has been reduced…..kind of ..
Patron-Clientelism (Camarillos)
This system of cliques based on personal connections and charismatic leadership has served as glue that has held agrarian Mexico together through practicing “you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours”.
Elite Spanish model of governing
Erodes sense of responsibility to people and country
Breeds corruption
Democratization and industrialization have put pressure on this system.
Economic Dependency
Always been in someone’s shadow…Spain then the U.S.

12. Geographic Influence
Never underestimate the power of simple geography to explain (or create) internal differences in a country.
Mexico is one of the most geographically diverse countries in the world
Mountains and Deserts = Regionalism
Varied Climates = size creates different experiences
Natural Resources = create disproportional wealth
A long border with the United States = shadow
111,000,000 People = huge influence
Urban Population = great impact on political support

13. Political & Economic Change
Historical Influences Divided into Three Parts
Colonialism
Independence (1821) until Revolution of 1910
The 20th Century after Revolution
Colonialism: Impact
Cultural heterogeneity (mestizo)
Catholicism (spread into country-side)
Economic Dependency (controlled by Spain)

14. Political & Economic Change
Independence (1821) until Revolution of 1910
The New Country
Instability and legitimacy issues
Rise of Military
Domination by the United States
Liberal vs. Conservative Struggle
“The Porfiriato”
A military coup : Porfirio ruled for 34 years
Dictatorship
Impact
Stability
Authoritarianism
Foreign Investment and economic growth
Growing gap between rich and poor
Revolution!

15. Political & Economic Change
The 20th Century after Revolution ( )
The Influence of this Era
Patron-Client System (caudillos) From revolution
Constitution of 1917
Conflict with Catholic Church (losing power)
Establishment of PRI
ALL ABOUT THE ELITE, NOT THE PEOPLE—IT’S AN ELITE POWER SHARING PLAN
PLAN: All Caudillos under one party
Agreement to “pass around” power
Sexenio (Six year term) of President
All other leaders would have major government positions.
“Instutionalize” the revolution by stabilizing conflict between leaders

16. Political & Economic Change
The 20th Century after Revolution ( )
The Cardenas Upheaval ( )
Redistribution of Land
Nationalization of Industry (PEMEX)
Investments in Public Works
Removal of Military from overt political involvement
Encouragement of Peasant and Union Organization
Concentration of Power in Presidency
Proved incredibly durable and led to pattern of PRI-dominated politics, as each PRI president hand picked his successor
Proved to be stable and internally legitimate
Called the “perfect dictatorship”

17. Political & Economic Change
The 20th Century after Revolution ( )
The Emergence of Technicos and the Pendulum Theory
Pendulum Theory
Neoliberalism
“Mexican Miracle”

18. Carlos Salinas ( )
Opened the economy to foreign trade and privatized nationalized industry in an attempt to modernize
Privatization caused and increase in gap between rich and poor, leading to a revolt in Chiapas
Paved way for downfall of PRI one-party rule

19. 2000 Election Vicente Fox Wins! – Partido Accion National (PAN) Party
This changed caused political scientists to be optimistic about democratic rule in Mexico
Mexico has been able to take control of its economic system in a way that most developing countries have not
It has raised the standard of living of most of it’s citizens

20. 2006 Election PAN won. PRD second. PRI last.
Felipe Calderon (PAN) won.
Andres Lopez Obrador (PRD) lost, but challenged the results
PRD, the leftist party in Mexican politics challenged the election
Obrador vowed to protest and vowed to set up a parallel government in which his supporters would answer to him.
Obrador’s supporters and others declared that the election was not free and fair, calling into question Calderon’s ability to hold power legitimately
Judicial branch validated election…AND it was followed!
Liberal democracy in Mexico?

21. Political Structures and Institutions
On Paper:
Constitution of 1917 sets up a democracy
Presidential system with three autonomous branches of government with checks and balances and federalism
In Practice:
Mexico’s system is highly centralized
The president had very few restraints on his power
President completely dominated the legislature and judicial branches
The majority of those elected to public office, were appointees who were named to their positions by higher-ups within in PRI (known as camarillas)
Reelection is prohibited
Meaning that there is massive turnover with each election and no experience of legislature to draw on

22. Federalism Mexico is a federal system
31 states and the federal district (Mexico City)
Each state is divided into municipals
System is classified as Political Centralism
Meaning that there is a concentration of power at the federal level, although there are elections for local officials
Each layer of government successively weaker
PROSNAL (National Solidarity Program)
A program of revenue sharing that was implemented
Goal: to shift decision-making authority over public education and health care to the states

23. The Legislative Branch
Federal Congress: Two Houses
Senate
128 member upper chamber
has exclusive power to oversee foreign affairs, primarily conducted by the president
has power to remove state governors and depose state legislatures
Chamber of Deputies
500 member lower house
all revenue bills originate in lower house
has power over appropriations and budget oversight

24. The Legislative Branch
Election process
Mixed electoral system
Both houses employ a mixed system in which some members are elected by plurality vote in single member districts, while others are elected by a system of proportional representation of closed party lists.
2 %minimum winning threshold
The mixed member system has led to a three-party system in which most of the regions now have two-party systems but nationally the vote is split into three main blocks
President has veto power over legislation
This caused a stalemate during Vicente Fox’s term

25. Legislative Branch Presidential vetoes Can take two forms
Regular veto, in which the president expresses his rejection of a bill
Corrective veto, in which the president requests that Congress amend the bill, usually because of technical errors in the text
In either case, Congress can insist on the original text of the bill by a two-thirds vote, after which the president must publish the legislation

26. The Executive Branch
More dominant political actor in Mexico for the greater part of the twentieth century
Possessed broad range of unwritten but generally recognized “meta-constitutional” powers
Power is concentrated in the executive
Other government branches take their cues from the president
Has veto power over legislature
The president has traditionally handpicked his successor, Vicente Fox did not

27. The Executive Branch
Requirements for “meta-constitutional” presidential power
Unified Government (legislative control).
High party discipline in the ruling party.
Recognition of the President as head of party.
When in place, the president can rule without regard to constitution (PRI rule)
When all three do not exist, executive-legislative relations follow constitutional rather than partisan norms. (post 1997)

28. Executive-Legislative Relations
Once true that president presided over a compliant legislature
With the end of PRI-dominance, this is no longer true
Vicente Fox had significant difficulties getting many of his programs passed through the legislative branch
Fox only had 41% of seats in lower chamber

29. Political Parties: PRI
Established with the goal of reducing political conflict
Cardenas transformed the party into a mass-based political party that could be used to build popular support for government policies and mobilize participation in elections
Cardenas merged local, state and national organizations of peasants and urban workers that had been created during his presidency
Party became appendage to the government itself
Party enjoyed unlimited access to government funds to finance its campaigns.
President enjoyed a slush fund “authorized” by congress
Many of the advantages were challenged when the Salinas administration introduced electoral reforms, and the PRI had to adjust form being an official party to being a party out of power

30. Political Parties: PAN
Party that represents the views on the right of the ideological spectrum.
Established in reaction to the leftward drift of public policy under Cardenas, especially his policies to support socialist public education
Founders included Catholic intellectuals and urban middle class
It also attracts votes from socially conservative peasants and the urban working class

31. Political Parties: PRD
Represents the left of the ideological spectrum
Members believe in moderate socialist political ideas
Some who lean toward a communist ideology

32. The Shifting of Mexico’s Parties
After 2006 election, social basis of support for parties shifted dramatically
PRI’s base was once rural, but in 2006 it was the PRD who took the rural and poor vote
PAN retained its support with urban voters and young voters
Region played the biggest role in determining the outcome of the vote
PRD is weak in northern and central states, but strong in Mexico City
The North-South split proved to be biggest cleavage in Mexican politics

33. Elite Recruitment Who becomes one of Mexico’s political elite?
Recruited predominantly from the middle class
mostly people born or raised in Mexico City
Postgraduate education, especially at elite foreign universities and in disciplines such as economics and public administration
Vincente Fox favored persons with nongovernmental experience and who had no political party affiliation.
Calderon had an MA in economics and public administration (latter from Harvard) and had extensive party experience.

34. Elite Recruitment Kinship ties
Revolution caused a hostile attitude toward serving multiple terms, so political leaders are restricted to serving one term
Cabinet filled with tecnicos
People who spend their entire careers in the bureaucracy
Kinship ties
Political inbreeding

35. Interest Articulation & Political Control
Corporatist
A system of interest representation in which each citizen is expected to relate to the state through a single structure “licensed” by the state to organize and represent themselves (peasants, teachers, etc.)
In sum, a number of PRI-controlled interest groups dominate politics
Result: Patron-client networks in which favors were exchanged between citizens and members of the government.

36. Government Performance
Promoting economic Growth &Reducing Poverty
Mexico has experienced impressive economic gains, some credit should be given to government policies
Foreign investment and the privatization of national industry led to massive public investments in infrastructure
This has led to a stimulation of the economy, economic growth, and low inflation

37. Government Performance
Promoting economic Growth &Reducing Poverty
Neoliberal economic development
Describes the idea of allowing free markets and foreign investment
Standard of living of middle class Mexicans has improved
Dark side of economy
The poor remain desperately poor
Much lower living standard than the poor in industrialized countries
Income gap between urban and rural lifestyles remains great
Suffered through periods of very high inflation

38. Government Performance
Promoting economic Growth &Reducing Poverty
Because of belief that oil revenues would be guaranteed income, the government borrowed heavily abroad.
When oil prices decline, the government was forced to suspend repayment of foreign debt.
US helped renegotiate term, but Mexico remains heavily in debt.
Selinas disaster of 1994—capital flight of $10 billion in one week.

39. Rule of Law and Mexico’s Future
Lacks rule of law that one finds in many industrialized nations
Crime is rampant
Justice is infrequently served
Police are corrupt (in part because of low pay)
Prospect of Democracy in Mexico
Elections have become as free and fair as industrialized nations
Economic performance has been mixed
Rule of law is lacking
Jury still out on whether or not Mexico will successfully transition to democracy

40. Current Policy Challenges
Playing catch up!: with international trading partners
To modernize: it must modernize its agricultural sector to allow it to survive competition from countries that have subsidies to make their goods cheaper.
Maintain job growth
Renovate energy sector
Accommodate aging population
Politically: Maintain fair and transparent election process

41. Political Structures and Institutions
Nature of the regime? One-party democracy evolving toward “true” democracy? Authoritarian regime?
Hybrid: part-free, part authoritarian
Democratic breakthrough election of 2000 and 2006
In sum, classifying the structure of government in Mexico is difficult