1. 8
Human Development

2. Learning Objectives
8.1 How does Piaget's theory explain cognitive development? 8.2 How do the neo-Piagetians and Vygotsky explain cognitive development? 8.3 How does Kohlberg's theory explain moral reasoning? 8.4 How does Erikson's theory explain psychosocial development? 8.5 What happens in each stage of prenatal development? 2

3. Learning Objectives
8.6 How do infants' abilities change over the first 18 months of life? 8.7 How does temperament affect infants' behavior? 8.8 What are the causes, characteristics, and consequences of infant-caregiver attachment? 8.9 What are the phases of language development, and how do various theorists explain them? 8.10 What do parenting styles and peer relationships contribute to socialization? 3

4. Learning Objectives
8.11 How do theorists explain gender role development? 8.12 How does puberty influence adolescents' bodies, self-concepts, and behavior? 8.13 What do parents and peers contribute to teens' development? 8.14 What are the characteristics of emerging adulthood? 8.15 How do the body and mind change in early and middle adulthood? 4

5. Learning Objectives
8.16 What are the themes of social development in early and middle adulthood? 8.17 How do the body and mind change in the later adult years? 8.18 What adjustment challenges do older adults face? 8.19 What are the components of successful aging? 8.20 How do people respond to approaching death and bereavement? 5

6. Overview Theories of Development Prenatal Development and Infancy
Early and Middle Childhood
Adolescence
Early and Middle Adulthood
Later Adulthood

7. Theories of Development
Developmental Psychology
the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span
covers physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains
Development is seen as continuous or as taking place in stages.

8. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: How Development Happens
The essence of cognitive development is the refinement of schemes.
Schemes
plans of action to be used in similar circumstances
8.1 How does Piaget's theory
explain cognitive development?

9. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: How Development Happens
Assimilation
process for incorporating new objects, events, experiences, and information into existing schemes
Accommodation
modifying existing schemes and creating new ones to incorporate new experiences and information
8.1 How does Piaget's theory
explain cognitive development?

10. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage
birth to 2 years
Infants gain understanding of the world through senses and motor activities.
Infants act on objects and events that are directly perceived.
8.1 How does Piaget's theory
explain cognitive development?

11. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage
development of object permanence
the realization that objects continue to exist when they can no longer be perceived
8.1 How does Piaget's theory
explain cognitive development?

12. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Preoperational Stage
ages 2–7
Children acquire symbolic function.
understanding that one thing can stand for another
Children exhibit egocentrism.
belief that everyone sees what they see and thinks what they think
8.1 How does Piaget's theory
explain cognitive development?

13. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Concrete Operational Stage
7–11/12 years
Children acquire the concept of conservation.
quantity of matter stays the same despite rearrangement or change in appearance
begin to understand reversibility
any change in shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally
8.1 How does Piaget's theory
explain cognitive development?

14. Figure 8.1 Piaget’s Conservation Tasks Piaget’s research involved several kinds of conservation tasks. He classified children’s thinking as concrete operational with respect to a particular task if they could correctly solve the problem and provide a concrete operational reason for their answer. For example, if a child said, “The two circles of marbles are the same because you didn’t add any or take any away when you moved them,” the response was judged to be concrete operational. Conversely, if a child said, “The two circles are the same, but I don’t know why,” the response was not classified as concrete operational. Source: Bee & Boyd, The Developing Child, 11e.

15. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Four stages of Cognitive Development
Formal Operational Stage
11/12 years and beyond
Children acquire the capacity for hypothetico-deductive thinking.
ability to apply logical thought to abstract and hypothetical situations
8.1 How does Piaget's theory
explain cognitive development?

16. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development16

17. Alternative to Piaget's Theory: Neo-Piagetian Approach
LO 8.2
These theorists believe that age-related differences in performance are a function of changes in the use of working memory.
Younger children process information more slowly.
information less likely to make it to long-term storage
cannot compare original and transformation
8.2 How do the neo-Piagetians
and Vygotsky explain cognitive
development?

18. Alternative to Piaget's Theory: Neo-Piagetian Approach
LO 8.2
These theorists believe that age-related differences in performance are a function of changes in the use of working memory.
Older children are better able to integrate all relevant information in working memory.
8.2 How do the neo-Piagetians
and Vygotsky explain cognitive
development?

19. Alternative to Piaget's Theory: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Approach
LO 8.2
Felt Piaget's theory placed too much emphasis on forces within the child
Key Concepts
private speech
talking to oneself
key component in cognitive development
8.2 How do the neo-Piagetians
and Vygotsky explain cognitive
development?

20. Alternative to Piaget's Theory: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Approach
LO 8.2
Key Concepts
scaffolding / zone of proximal development
instruction where an adult adjusts the amount of guidance to match a child's present level of ability
8.2 How do the neo-Piagetians
and Vygotsky explain cognitive
development?

21. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral development.
Presented moral dilemmas to participants
analyzed the moral reasoning in their choices
8.3 How does Kohlberg's theory
explain moral reasoning?

22. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Classified moral reasoning
three levels, two stages at each level
progress through the levels and stages in a fixed order
Each level has a prerequisite stage of cognitive development.
8.3 How does Kohlberg's theory
explain moral reasoning?

23. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

24. Kolhberg's Theory
LO 8.3
Evidence suggests that the stages occur in all cultures.
Stage 5 is present in all middle-class cultures studied, but absent in tribal cultures.
8.3 How does Kohlberg's theory
explain moral reasoning?

25. Kolhberg's Theory Carol Gilligan feels that the theory is sex-biased.
LO 8.3
Carol Gilligan feels that the theory is sex-biased.
No women were used in Kohlberg's studies.
content of women's morality different
8.3 How does Kohlberg's theory
explain moral reasoning?

26. Figure 8.2 Longitudinal Study of Moral Development These findings are from Colby and Kohlberg’s long-term longitudinal study of a group of boys who were asked about Kohlberg’s moral dilemmas every few years from age 10 through early adulthood. Note that postconventional, or principled, reasoning was quite uncommon, even in adulthood. Source: Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., & Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48, pp. 1–124.

27. Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial Stages
encompass the entire life span
Each stage is defined by a conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development to occur.
8.4 How does Erikson's theory
explain psychosocial
development?

28. Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Most research has focused on trust in infants, identity formation in adolescents, and generativity in middle-aged adults.
Predictions received mixed support in research.
8.4 How does Erikson's theory
explain psychosocial
development?

29. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

30. Table 8.1 Stages of Prenatal Development

31. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Negative Influences on Prenatal Development
Teratogens
harmful agents in the prenatal environment
negative impact on prenatal development
can cause birth defects
8.5 What happens in each stage
of prenatal development?

32. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Prenatal Development and Infancy: Negative Influences on Prenatal Development
LO 8.5
Critical Period
prenatal period when certain body structures develop
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Mother drinks during pregnancy.
Baby is born with mental retardation, small head, facial, organ, and behavioral abnormalities.
8.5 What happens in each stage
of prenatal development?

33. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Birth
Labor: 3-Stage Process
Stage 1: Uterus contracts; cervix flattens and increases in diameter to 10 centimeters.
Stage 2: Fetus makes its way through the vagina and into the world.
Stage 3: Uterus expels the placenta.
Neonate
Newborn infant up to 1 month old
8.5 What happens in each stage
of prenatal development?

34. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Perceptual and Motor Development
Robert Fantz (1961)
Infants prefer to fixate on some objects over others.
Newborn infants can discriminate between objects.
prefer faces to black and white abstract patterns
Newborn visual acuity is about 20/600.
Vision improves rapidly.
8.6 How do infants' abilities
change over the first 18 months
of life?

35. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Temperament
behavioral style; characteristic way of responding to the environment
influenced by heredity; somewhat predictive of personality later in life
8.7 How does temperament
affect infants' behavior?

36. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Temperament
Types of Temperament
easy
pleasant mood, adaptable, approach new situations positively
difficult
intense emotional reactions, react negatively to new situations
slow to warm up
tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat negative in mood
8.7 How does temperament
affect infants' behavior?

37. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Attachment
strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver
Harry Harlow
Contact comfort rather than nourishment forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeys.
8.8 What are the causes,
characteristics, and consequences
of infant–caregiver attachment?

38. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Attachment
At 6–8 months of age, human infants exhibit:
Separation anxiety
fear and distress shown when parent leaves
Stranger anxiety
fear of strangers
8.8 What are the causes,
characteristics, and consequences
of infant–caregiver attachment?

39. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Attachment
Secure Attachment
about 65 percent of infants
use mother as a secure base for exploring
distressed by separation from caregivers, greet caregivers when they return
display better social skills as preschool children
8.8 What are the causes,
characteristics, and consequences
of infant–caregiver attachment?

40. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Attachment
Avoidant Attachment
about 20 percent of infants
not responsive to mother or troubled when she leaves
may actively avoid contact with mother after separation
8.8 What are the causes,
characteristics, and consequences
of infant–caregiver attachment?

41. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Attachment
Resistant Attachment
10–15 percent of infants
seek close contact with mother
tend not to branch out and explore
after separation, may display anger toward mother; not easily comforted
8.8 What are the causes,
characteristics, and consequences
of infant–caregiver attachment?

42. Prenatal Development and Infancy: Attachment
Disorganized/disoriented Attachment
5–10 percent of infants
protest separation
exhibit contradictory and disoriented behavior when reunited
8.8 What are the causes,
characteristics, and consequences
of infant–caregiver attachment?

43. Language Development: Phases of Language Development
Children must acquire language in the first two years of life; otherwise, their ability to learn it is impaired.
Phases of Language Development
cooing
repeatedly uttering vowel sounds
8.9 What are the phases of
language development, and how
do various theorists explain
them?

44. Language Development: Phases of Language Development
babbling
vocalization of basic speech sounds (phonemes)
between 4 and 6 months of age
8.9 What are the phases of
language development, and how
do various theorists explain
them?

45. Language Development: Phases of Language Development
One-Word Stage
age 1 year
Words represent objects that move or that infants can act on.
overextension and underextension
8.9 What are the phases of
language development, and how
do various theorists explain
them?

46. Language Development: Phases of Language Development
Telegraphic Speech
Ages 2–3
short sentences containing only essential content words
reflects understanding of syntax
overregularization
misapplying a grammatical rule
8.9 What are the phases of
language development, and how
do various theorists explain
them?

47. Language Development: Theories of Language Development
Learning Theories
Language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement.
Nativist Position
Language ability is largely innate.
language acquisition device
enables children to acquire language and rules of grammar easily and naturally
8.9 What are the phases of
language development, and how
do various theorists explain
them?

48. Language Development: Theories of Language Development
Interactionist Approach
acknowledges the role of infants' inborn capacity for acquiring language
recognizes environmental influences
Literacy
phonological awareness
sensitivity to sound patterns in language and how they are represented as letters
Children learn skills through word play.
8.9 What are the phases of
language development, and how
do various theorists explain
them?

49. Early and Middle Childhood Socialization: Parenting Styles
LO 8.10
Authoritarian Parents
arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience
value obedience to authority
Authoritative Parents
set high but realistic standards, enforce limits
encourage open communication and independence
8.10 What do parenting styles
and peer relationships contribute
to socialization?

50. Early and Middle Childhood Socialization: Parenting Styles
LO 8.10
Permissive Parents
few rules or demands
Children make their own decisions and control their own behavior.
8.10 What do parenting styles
and peer relationships contribute
to socialization?

51. Early and Middle Childhood Parenting Styles: Child Outcomes
LO 8.10
Authoritative Parents
Children tend to be happier and have higher self-esteem.
more self-reliant, socially competent, responsible
Authoritarian Parents
Children tend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy.
8.10 What do parenting styles
and peer relationships contribute
to socialization?

52. Early and Middle Childhood Parenting Styles: Child Outcomes
LO 8.10
Permissive Parents
Children are immature, impulsive, and dependent.
least self-reliant and self-controlled of three subtypes
8.10 What do parenting styles
and peer relationships contribute
to socialization?

53. Early and Middle Childhood: Gender Role Development
Biological Theory
Prenatal and sex hormones influence development.
Social Learning Theory
Environment is more important than biological forces.
modeling and reinforcement for gender behavior
8.11 How do theorists explain
gender role development?

54. Early and Middle Childhood: Gender Role Development
Cognitive Developmental Theory
development in stages
gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy
Gender-Schema Theory
desire to maintain self-esteem directs child toward culturally defined gender roles
8.11 How do theorists explain
gender role development?

55. Adolescence: Puberty and Sexual Behavior
LO 8.12
Puberty
period of rapid physical growth and change
culminates in sexual maturity
Early maturation in boys
advantages in sports
more success academically
greater aggression and hostility
8.12 How does puberty
influence adolescents' bodies,
self-concepts, and behavior?

56. Adolescence: Puberty and Sexual Behavior
LO 8.12
Early maturation in girls
more self-conscious over developing body
earlier sexual experiences, more unwanted pregnancies
earlier exposure to alcohol and drug use
8.12 How does puberty
influence adolescents' bodies,
self-concepts, and behavior?

57. Figure 8. 4 Incidence of Sexual Activity in U. S
Figure Incidence of Sexual Activity in U.S. High School Students This graph shows that the proportions of sexually active boys and girls increase dramatically from grade 9 to 12. Source: Data from Eaton, 2012.

58. Adolescence: Puberty and Sexual Behavior
LO 8.12
Sexual activity increases dramatically through the teen years.
Factors associated with later onset of sexual activity:
Living with both biological parents
Higher academic achievement
Involvement in sports
Frequent attendance of religious services
8.12 How does puberty
influence adolescents' bodies,
self-concepts, and behavior?

59. Adolescence: Social Development
Most adolescents have good relationships with their parents.
A good relationships with parents is important for psychological development.
8.13 What do parents and peers
contribute to teens'
development?

60. Adolescence: Social Development
Parenting style affects adolescent behavior.
authoritative most effective; permissive least effective
Peer groups provide adolescents with:
Assistance in identity formation
Standards of comparison
Vehicle for developing social skills
8.13 What do parents and peers
contribute to teens'
development?

61. Adolescence: Emerging Adulthood
LO 8.14
Period from Late Teens to Early 20s
explore options prior to committing to adult roles
develop new skills in work
Neuroimaging Studies
The parts of the brain involved in decision making and self-control continue to mature through the early 20s.
8.14 What are the characteristics
of emerging adulthood?

62. Adolescence: Emerging Adulthood
LO 8.14
Must address developmental tasks in 5 domains
academic, friendship, conduct, work, romantic
Emerging adults struggle more with work and romantic tasks.
8.14 What are the characteristics
of emerging adulthood?

63. Early and Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Changes
LO 8.15
After age 30, slight decline in physical capabilities
Presbyopia
lens of the eye no longer accommodates adequately for near vision
8.15 How do the body and mind
change in early and middle
adulthood?

64. Early and Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Changes
LO 8.15
Menopause
cessation of menstruation
signifies end of reproductive capacity in women
usually occurs between 45 and 55
Gradual decline in testosterone in men
beginning at age 20, continuing until about 60
8.15 How do the body and mind
change in early and middle
adulthood?

65. Early and Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Changes
LO 8.15
Tasks Performance Differences
Young Adult
tasks requiring speed or rote memory
Older Adult
general information, vocabulary, reasoning ability, and social judgment
8.15 How do the body and mind
change in early and middle
adulthood?

66. Early and Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Changes
LO 8.15
Two Types of Intelligence
crystallized intelligence
verbal ability and accumulated knowledge
increases over life span
fluid intelligence
abstract reasoning and mental flexibility
peaks in the early 20s and declines slowly as people age
8.15 How do the body and mind
change in early and middle
adulthood?

67. Early and Middle Adulthood: Social Development
Living Arrangements
One half of all US households are headed by a married couple; the other half have different arrangements.
Marriage and Divorce
Eighty percent of Americans will marry at least once.
Marriage is associated with many physical and psychological benefits.
8.16 What are the themes of
social development in early and
middle adulthood?

68. Early and Middle Adulthood: Social Development
Parenthood
As with the increased age at which people get married, a growing number of couples are delaying parenthood until their 30s.
8.16 What are the themes of
social development in early and
middle adulthood? 68

69. Early and Middle Adulthood: Social Development
Careers
Job satisfaction predicts satisfaction with romantic relationships.
importance of career shared by both men and women
8.16 What are the themes of
social development in early and
middle adulthood? 69

70. Later Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Changes
LO 8.17
General Slowing
reductions in the speed of neural transmission
leads to slowing of physical and mental functions
Farsightedness, impaired night vision, hearing loss in higher frequencies
8.17 How do the body and mind
change in the later adult years?

71. Later Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Changes
LO 8.17
Eighty percent of Americans older than age sixty-five have one or more chronic conditions.
hypertension, arthritis
Good Cognitive Functioning Predictors
education level, complex work environment, a long marriage to intelligent spouse, higher income
8.17 How do the body and mind
change in the later adult years?

72. Later Adulthood: Social Adjustment
LO 8.18
Sixty percent of sixty-five- to sixty-nine-year-olds and eighty percent of those over seventy have retired from paid employment (Fifars, 2008).
Most do not experience stress adjusting to retirement.
8.18 What adjustment
challenges do older adults face?

73. Later Adulthood: Social Adjustment
LO 8.18
Loss of Spouse
most stressful event of lifetime
suppressed immune functioning in grieving spouse
8.18 What adjustment
challenges do older adults face?

74. Later Adulthood: Social Adjustment
LO 8.18
Living Arrangements
The US places high value on independence.
Five percent of elderly women and nine percent of older men live with relatives.
Latin-American and Asian cultures
The elderly live with relatives.
8.18 What adjustment
challenges do older adults face?

75. Figure Percentage of People Age 65 and Older Who Reported Having Good to Excellent Health, by Age Group and Race and Hispanic Origin, 2008–2010 Source: FIFARS (2012).

76. Later Adulthood: Successful Aging
LO 8.19
Three Components
Good physical health
Retention of cognitive abilities
Engagement in social and productive activities
Engage in activities to ward off decline.
overall satisfaction with life
8.19 What are the components
of successful aging?

77. Death and Dying: Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
LO 8.20
Identified 5 stages in coming to terms with death
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
8.20 How do people respond to
approaching death and
bereavement?

78. Death and Dying: Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
LO 8.20
Critics doubt the universality of stages.
Reactions to impending death vary widely between individuals and across cultures.
8.20 How do people respond to
approaching death and
bereavement?