1. Ch. 5 --Thermochemistry (I)
Energy: “The capacity to do work.”
In Physics, there are 2 main types of energy…
Kinetic (energy of motion) = ½ mv2
Potential (energy of position due to gravity)= mgh
In Chemistry, we usually concern ourselves with the heat energy gained or lost during chemical reactions.

2. (So your 1 Calorie soft drink is really 1000 “real” calories!)
Energy Units
SI Unit for energy is the joule, J:
1 Joule=1 kg m2/s2
We sometimes use the calorie instead of the joule:
1 cal = J (exactly)
A nutritional Calorie: 1 Cal = 1000 cal = 1 kcal
(So your 1 Calorie soft drink is really 1000 “real” calories!)

3. Systems and Surroundings
For thermochemical reactions, we will need to define the following parts of the reaction…
System: part of the reaction we are interested in.
Surroundings: the rest of the universe.
Example: If we are interested in the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in a cylinder, then the H2 and O2 in the cylinder form a system, and everything else is the surroundings.

4. We will concern ourselves with the transfer of heat!
Transferring Energy
There are 2 ways to transfer energy in or out of a
system…
1) Work…applying a force to an object and moving it a distance (W=Fxd)
2) Heat…the energy transferred from hotter objects to colder objects
Energy is therefore capacity to do work OR transfer heat.
We will concern ourselves with the transfer of heat!

5. The 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics is really just the law of conservation of energy.
The energy of (system + surroundings) is constant.
Thus any energy transferred from a system must be transferred to the surroundings (and vice versa).
Internal Energy: total energy of a system.
You cannot measure “absolute internal energy” so we measure the change in energy.
Change in internal energy…∆E= Ef - Ei

6. The 1st Law of Thermodynamics
When a system undergoes a physical or chemical change, the change in internal energy is given by the heat added to or absorbed by the system plus the work done on or by the system:
∆E= q + w
(E= energy, q=heat, w=work)

7. Sign Convention for q and w
heat goes in…q is (+).
heat goes out…q is (−).
work goes in…w is (+).
work goes out…w is (−).

8. Endothermic and Exothermic Processes
• An endothermic process is one that absorbs heat from the surroundings. (+q)
An endothermic reaction feels cold.
Example--an “instant” ice pack
• An exothermic process is one that transfers heat to the surroundings. (-q)
An exothermic reaction feels hot.
Example--burning paper

9. State Functions
A state function depends only on the initial and final states of a system.
Example: The altitude difference between Denver and Chicago does not depend on whether you fly or drive, only on the elevation of the two cities above sea level.
Similarly, the internal energy of 50 g of H2O(l) at 25 ºC does not depend on whether we cool 50 g of H2O(l) from 100 ºC to 25 ºC or heat 50 g of H2O(l) at 0 ºC to 25 ºC.

10. State Functions
A state function does not depend on how the internal energy is used.
Example: A battery in a flashlight can be discharged by producing heat and light. The same battery in a toy car produces heat and work. The change in internal energy of the battery is the same in both cases.

11. State Functions Enthalpy ∆E is a state function. Enthalpy, H:
Enthalpy is heat transferred between the system and surroundings carried out under constant pressure. (Open containers are under constant pressure!)
Enthalpy is also a state function.
∆H is (+) for endothermic reactions…just like q!
∆H is (−) for exothermic reactions…just like q!

12. Enthalpies of Reactions
Again, we can only measure the change in enthalpy, ∆H.
∆H = Hfinal – Hinitial
For a reaction…
∆Hrxn = H(products) – H(reactants)
The enthalpy change that accompanies a reaction is called the enthalpy of reaction or heat of reaction (∆Hrxn).
Consider the equation for the production of water:
2H2(g) + O2(g) -----> 2H2O(g) ∆Hrxn = –483.6 kJ
-The equation tells us that kJ of energy are released to the surroundings when water is formed & the reaction would feel hot.
-These equations are called thermochemical equations.

13. Enthalpies of Reactions
Enthalpy is an “extensive property” which means it depends on the amount of reactant you start with. (“Intensive properties” do not depend on the quantity of the substance, i.e. – density.)
- Example: CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) ∆H = -802 kJ
2CH4(g) + 4O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 4H2O(g) ∆H = kJ
If you reverse the reaction, change the sign on ∆H.
-Example: CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)  CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ∆H = +802 kJ
Enthalpy change for a reaction depends on the state of the reactants and products.
-Example: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ----> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H = -890 kJ
If water vapor is the product, ∆H = -802 kJ because…
2H2O(l) > 2H2O(g) ∆H = +88 kJ

14. Calorimeters
Calorimeters measure heat flow. It measures changes in water temperature after a reaction is performed.
(Constant Pressure)
Bomb Calorimeter
Usually studies combustion (Constant Volume)

15. c (water) = 4.184 J/g ºC or 1.0 cal/g ºC
Measuring Heat, q
Heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of an object by 1 ºC.
Molar heat capacity, (C) is the heat capacity of 1 mol of a substance.
Cp=∆H/∆T
Specific heat, (c), or specific heat capacity is the heat capacity of 1 g of a substance.
q = (grams of substance) x (specific heat) x ∆T.
q=mc∆T
c (water) = J/g ºC or 1.0 cal/g ºC

16. *Note: q(solution) = − q(rxn)
Measuring Heat
Practice Problems: How many joules of heat will raise the temperature of exactly 50 g of water at 25 ºC to 75 ºC
q = (50 g) x (4.18J/g ºC) x (50 ºC) =
*Note: q(solution) = − q(rxn)
What is the molar heat capacity for water?
C = (4.18 J/g ºC) x (18.0 g/mole) =
So…
q=mc∆T
10450 J
75.2 J/mol ºC
C = c x M

17. Hess’s Law
If a reaction is carried out in a series of steps, ∆H for the reaction is the sum of ∆H for each of the steps.
The total change in enthalpy is independent of the number of steps.
Total ∆H is also independent of the nature of the path.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -----> CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) ∆H = –802 kJ
(Add) 2H2O(g) > 2H2O(l) ∆H = –88 kJ
____________________________________________________
(Total) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) > CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H = –890 kJ
Hess’s Law provides a useful means of calculating energy changes that are difficult to measure…(in this case it’s getting liquid water to form instead of water vapor.)

18. Enthalpies of Formation
If a compound is formed from its constituent elements, then the enthalpy change for the reaction is called the enthalpy of formation, ∆Hf .
Example: C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) ∆Hf = −393.5 kJ
Standard state (standard conditions) refer to the substance at:
1 atm and 25ºC (298 K)
(We will assume that reactants and products are both at 25 ºC unless otherwise stated.)
Standard enthalpy, ∆Hº, is the enthalpy measured when everything is in its standard state.
Standard enthalpy of formation of a compound, ∆Hºf , is the enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mole of compound with all substances in their standard states.

19. Enthalpies of Formation
If there is more than one state for a substance under standard conditions, the more stable one is used.
-Example: When dealing with carbon we use graphite because graphite is more stable than diamond or C60.
By definition, the standard enthalpy of formation of the most stable form of an element is zero. Why?
-Because there is no formation reaction needed when the element is already in its standard state.
∆Hºf C(graphite) = zero
∆Hºf O2(g) = zero
∆Hºf Br2(l) = zero

20. Using ∆Hºf to calculate ∆Hºrxn
In general:
∆Hºrxn =  n∆Hºf (products) –  m∆Hºf (reactants)
Where n and m are the coefficients from the balanced chemical equation.
Let’s do one for practice!!!

21. Using ∆Hºf to calculate ∆Hºrxn
Example: Use Hess’s Law to calculate ∆Hºrxn for…
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) > 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
Step 1, the products…Form 3CO2 and 4H2O from their elements:
3C(s) + 3O2(g) >3CO2(g) ∆H1 = 3∆Hºf[CO2(g)]…tripled it!
4H2(g) + 2O2(g) > 4H2O(l) ∆H2 = 4∆Hºf[H2O(l)]…quadrupled it!
Step 2, the reactants…(Note: O2 has no enthalpy of formation since it is in the elemental state, so we concern ourselves with C3H8.)
3C(s) + 4H2(g) > C3H8(g) ∆H3 = ∆Hºf [C3H8(g)]
Step 3, Now look up the values on p.177 and do the math!
∆Hºrxn = ∆Hºf (products) – ∆Hºf (reactants)
∆Hºrxn = [3(–393.5 kJ) + 4(–285.8 kJ)] – [(– kJ)]
∆Hºrxn = – – = –2220 kJ

22. Heat of Fusion & Heat of Vaporization
Molar heat of fusion (∆Hfus) : the amount of energy required to take 1 mole of a solid to the liquid state.
Example: H2O(s)  H2O(l) ∆Hfus = 6.01 kJ
-Heat of fusion is usually greater for ionic solids than molecular solids since ionic solids are more strongly held together.
For ice to water … ∆Hfus= 6.01 kJ/mol
Molar heat of vaporization (∆H vap): the amount of energy required to take 1 mole of a liquid to the gaseous state.
Example: H2O(l)  H2O(g) ∆Hvap = kJ
For water to steam … ∆Hvap= kJ/mol
These values are mainly used as conversion factors!