1. Note that the following lectures include animations and PowerPoint effects such as fly ins and transitions that require you to be in PowerPoint's Slide Show mode (presentation mode).

2. Chapter 11
The Formation of Stars

3. Guidepost
Previous chapters have used the basic principles of physics as a way to deduce things about stars and the interstellar medium. All of the data we have amassed will now help us understand the life stories of the stars in this chapter and those that follow.
In this chapter, we use the laws of physics in a new way. We develop theories and models based on physics that help us understand how stars work. For instance, what stops a contracting star and gives it stability? We can understand this phenomenon because we understand some of the basic laws of physics.
Throughout this chapter and the chapters that follow, we search for evidence. What observational facts confirm or contradict our theories? That is the basis of all science, and it must be part of any critical analysis of what we know and how we know it.

4. Outline I. Making Stars from the Interstellar Medium
A. Star Birth in Giant Molecular Clouds
B. Heating By Contraction
C. Protostars
D. Evidence of Star Formation
II. The Source of Stellar Energy
A. A Review of the Proton-Proton Chain
B. The CNO Cycle
III. Stellar Structure
A. Energy Transport
B. What Supports the Sun?
C. Inside Stars
D. The Pressure-Temperature Thermostat

5. Outline (continued)
IV. The Orion Nebula
A. Evidence of Young Stars

6. Young stars, still in their birth nebulae
The Life Cycle of Stars
Dense, dark clouds, possibly forming stars in the future
Aging supergiant
Young stars, still in their birth nebulae

7. Giant Molecular Clouds
Barnard 68
Infrared
Visible
Star formation collapse of the cores of giant molecular clouds: Dark, cold, dense clouds obscuring the light of stars behind them. 
(More transparent in infrared light.)

8. Parameters of Giant Molecular Clouds
Size: r ~ 50 pc
Mass: > 100,000 Msun
Temp.: a few 0K
Dense cores:
R ~ 0.1 pc
M ~ 1 Msun
Much too cold and too low density to ignite thermonuclear processes
Clouds need to contract and heat up in order to form stars.

9. Contraction of Giant Molecular Cloud Cores
Horse Head Nebula
Thermal Energy (pressure)
Magnetic Fields
Rotation (angular momentum)
Turbulence
 External trigger required to initiate the collapse of clouds to form stars.

10. Shocks Triggering Star Formation
Trifid Nebula
Globules = sites where stars are being born right now!

11. Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation (1)
Previous star formation can trigger further star formation through:
a) Shocks from supernovae (explosions of massive stars):
Massive stars die young => Supernovae tend to happen near sites of recent star formation

12. Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation (2)
Previous star formation can trigger further star formation through:
b) Ionization fronts of hot, massive O or B stars which produce a lot of UV radiation:
Massive stars die young => O and B stars only exist near sites of recent star formation

13. Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation (3)
Giant molecular clouds are very large and may occasionally collide with each other
c) Collisions of giant molecular clouds.

14. Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation (4)
d) Spiral arms in galaxies like our Milky Way:
Spirals’ arms are probably rotating shock wave patterns.

15. Protostars
Protostars = pre-birth state of stars:
Hydrogen to Helium fusion not yet ignited
Still enshrouded in opaque “cocoons” of dust => barely visible in the optical, but bright in the infrared.

16. Heating By Contraction
As a protostar contracts, it heats up:
Free-fall contraction
→ Heating

17. Protostellar Disks
Conservation of angular momentum leads to the formation of protostellar disks  birth place of planets and moons

18. Protostellar Disks and Jets – Herbig Haro Objects
Disks of matter accreted onto the protostar (“accretion disks”) often lead to the formation of jets (directed outflows; bipolar outflows): Herbig Haro Objects

19. Protostellar Disks and Jets – Herbig Haro Objects (2)
Herbig Haro Object HH34

20. Protostellar Disks and Jets – Herbig Haro Objects (3)
Herbig Haro Object HH30

21. From Protostars to Stars
Star emerges from the enshrouding dust cocoon
Ignition of H  He fusion processes

22. Evidence of Star Formation
Nebula around S Monocerotis:
Contains many massive, very young stars,
including T Tauri Stars: strongly variable; bright in the infrared.

23. Evidence of Star Formation (2)
Smaller, sunlike stars, probably formed under the influence of the massive star
Young, very massive star
Optical
Infrared
The Cone Nebula

24. Evidence of Star Formation (3)
Star Forming Region RCW 38

25. Globules Bok Globules: ~ 10 to 1000 solar masses;
Contracting to form protostars

26. Globules (2)
Evaporating Gaseous Globules (“EGGs”): Newly forming stars exposed by the ionizing radiation from nearby massive stars

27. Open Clusters of Stars
Large masses of Giant Molecular Clouds => Stars do not form isolated, but in large groups, called Open Clusters of Stars.
Open Cluster M7

28. Open Clusters of Stars (2)
Large, dense cluster of (yellow and red) stars in the foreground; ~ 50 million years old
Scattered individual (bright, white) stars in the background; only ~ 4 million years old

29. The Source of Stellar Energy
Recall from our discussion of the sun:
Stars produce energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.
In the sun, this happens primarily through the proton-proton (PP) chain

30. The CNO Cycle The CNO Cycle.
In stars slightly more massive than the sun, a more powerful energy generation mechanism than the PP chain takes over:
The CNO Cycle.

31. Energy Transport Radiative energy transport Convection
Energy generated in the star’s center must be transported to the surface.
Inner layers:
Radiative energy transport
Outer layers (including photosphere):
Convection
Bubbles of hot gas rising up
Cool gas sinking down
Gas particles of solar interior
g-rays

32. Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

33. Stellar Structure Sun Flow of energy Energy transport via convection
Energy transport via radiation
Flow of energy
Energy generation via nuclear fusion
Basically the same structure for all stars with approx. 1 solar mass or less.
Temperature, density and pressure decreasing

34. The Sun
(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

35. Hydrostatic Equilibrium
Imagine a star’s interior composed of individual shells.
Within each shell, two forces have to be in equilibrium with each other:
Gravity, i.e. the weight from all layers above
Outward pressure from the interior

36. Hydrostatic Equilibrium (2)
Outward pressure force must exactly balance the weight of all layers above everywhere in the star.
This condition uniquely determines the interior structure of the star.
This is why we find stable stars on such a narrow strip (Main Sequence) in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.

37. H-R Diagram (showing Main Sequence)

38. Energy Transport Structure
Inner convective, outer radiative zone
Inner radiative, outer convective zone
CNO cycle dominant
PP chain dominant

39. Summary: Stellar Structure
Convective Core, radiative envelope;
Energy generation through CNO Cycle
Sun
Mass
Radiative Core, convective envelope;
Energy generation through PP Cycle

40. The Orion Nebula: An Active Star-Forming Region

41. In the Orion Nebula
The Becklin-Neugebauer Object (BN): Hot star, just reaching the main sequence
Kleinmann-Low nebula (KL): Cluster of cool, young protostars detectable only in the infrared B3 B1 B1 O6
Visual image of the Orion Nebula
Protostars with protoplanetary disks

42. New Terms shock wave free-fall contraction protostar cocoon
protostellar disk
birth line
T Tauri star
Bok globule
Herbig–Haro object
bipolar flow
association
T association
O association
CNO (carbon–nitrogen–oxygen) cycle
opacity
hydrostatic equilibrium

43. Discussion Questions
1. Ancient astronomers, philosophers, and poets assumed that the stars were eternal and unchanging. Is there any observation they could have made or any line of reasoning that could have led them to conclude that stars don’t live forever?
2. How does hydrostatic equilibrium relate to hot-air ballooning?

44. Quiz Questions
1. In which component of the interstellar medium do new stars form?
a. In the HI clouds.
b. In the HII intercloud medium.
c. In the hot coronal gas.
d. In molecular clouds.
e. Both a and d above.

45. Quiz Questions
2. What force causes the contraction of a cloud of interstellar matter to form a star?
a. The electrostatic force.
b. The strong nuclear force.
c. The weak nuclear force.
d. The gravitational force.
e. All of the above.

46. Quiz Questions
3. Which factor resists the contraction of a cloud of interstellar matter?
a. Thermal energy.
b. The interstellar magnetic field.
c. Rotation.
d. Turbulence.
e. All of the above.

47. Quiz Questions
4. What triggers the gravitational collapse of material inside a molecular cloud?
a. Collisional cooling.
b. Shielding of the interstellar magnetic field.
c. Tidal forces slow the rate of rotation.
d. A subsidence in turbulence due to internal friction.
e. A passing shock wave.

48. Quiz Questions
5. What is the source of a shock wave that passes through a molecular cloud and triggers star formation?
a. A supernova explosion.
b. The ignition of hot stars within the cloud.
c. A collision of molecular clouds.
d. A spiral wave pattern within a galaxy.
e. All of the above.

49. Quiz Questions
6. What happens to the temperature and density inside a collapsing protostar?
a. Temperature and density both increase.
b. Temperature and density both decrease.
c. Temperature increases and density decreases.
d. Temperature decreases and density increases.
e. The product of temperature and density remains constant.

50. Quiz Questions 7. What is a protostar's energy source?
a. Nuclear fusion.
b. Gravitational energy.
c. Chemical energy.
d. Both a and b above.
e. All of the above.

51. Quiz Questions
8. What characteristic of the collapsing cloud that forms a protostar allows it to also form a protostellar disk?
a. Thermal energy.
b. The interstellar magnetic field.
c. Rotation.
d. Turbulence.
e. All of the above.

52. Quiz Questions
9. At what wavelengths can we observe the early stages of protostar formation?
a. Infrared.
b. Visible.
c. Ultraviolet.
d. Both a and b above.
e. Both a and c above.

53. Quiz Questions
10. What eventually halts the slow contraction of a newly forming star?
a. A second shock wave.
b. Electrostatic repulsion.
c. The Coulomb barrier.
d. Nuclear fusion.
e. Gravity.

54. Quiz Questions
11. The gestation period for humans is 40 weeks. What was the gestation period for our Sun; that is, how much time passed between the onset of gravitational collapse and the Sun's arrival on the main sequence?
a. About 40 weeks.
b. About 30,000 years.
c. About 30 million years.
d. About 1 billion years.
e. About 5 billion years.

55. Quiz Questions
12. According to Figure 11-5, the Protosun was cooler yet much more luminous than the Sun is now. How can this be true?
a. The Protosun had more mass.
b. The Protosun was much larger.
c. The rate of nuclear fusion was higher inside the Protosun.
d. Both a and c above.
e. Both b and c above.

56. Quiz Questions
13. What evidence do we have that the Orion region is actively forming stars?
a. Protostars are seen here at infrared wavelengths inside their cocoons.
b. Some stars here are between the birth line and the main sequence.
c. Some visible stars in the Orion region have disks.
d. Some short-lived stars are located in this region.
e. All of the above.

57. Quiz Questions
14. How does the CNO cycle differ from the proton-proton chain?
a. The CNO cycle requires a higher temperature than the proton-proton chain.
b. The rate of the CNO cycle is more temperature sensitive than the proton-proton chain.
c. The energy produced by one sequence through the CNO cycle is greater than for one sequence through the proton-proton chain.
d. Both a and b above.
e. All of the above.

58. Quiz Questions
15. Which stars produce most of their energy by the CNO cycle?
a. Protostars.
b. Upper main sequence stars.
c. Lower main sequence stars.
d. Both a and b above.
e. Both a and c above.

59. Quiz Questions
16. Which method of energy transport is NOT important inside most stars?
a. Conduction.
b. Convection.
c. Radiation.
d. Both a and b above.
e. Both a and c above.

60. Quiz Questions
17. How does the extreme temperature sensitivity of the CNO cycle affect a star's interior?
a. The CNO cycle generation zone occupies a very small region.
b. CNO cycle stars have radiative cores and convective envelopes.
c. CNO cycle stars have convective cores and radiative envelopes.
d. Both a and b above.
e. Both a and c above.

61. Quiz Questions
18. What prevents the enormous amount of energy released from the fusion reactions at a star's core from blowing the star apart?
a. Gas pressure.
b. Density.
c. Opacity.
d. Gravity.
e. All of the above.

62. Quiz Questions
19. What would happen in the interior of a normal star if gravity were to shrink the star's size a small amount?
a. The interior temperature would increase.
b. The rate of fusion would increase.
c. The gas pressure would increase.
d. Both a and b above.
e. All of the above.

63. Quiz Questions
20. Where in the Sun is the law of hydrostatic equilibrium at work?
a. At the visible surface.
b. At the outer boundary of the energy-generating core.
c. At the convective zone/radiative zone boundary.
d. About halfway between the center and visible surface.
e. At every point inside the Sun.

64. Answers
1. d
2. d
3. e
4. e
5. e
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. a
10. d
11. c
12. b
13. e
14. d
15. b
16. a
17. e
18. d
19. e
20. e