1. Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychology

2. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
What is Psychology?
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

3. Introduction to Psychology
Psychology Is:
- The scientific study of human behavior and mental processes.
Try It 1.1 Science or Common Sense
Indicate Whether each statement is true (T) or false (F).
Once damaged, brain cells never work again.
All people dream during a night of normal sleep.
As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the time it takes for the victim to get help decreases.
Humans do not have a maternal instinct.
It’s impossible for human beings to hear a watch ticking 20 feet away.
Eyewitness testimony is unreliable.
Chimpanzees have been taught to speak.
Creativity and high intelligence do not necessarily go together.
When it comes to close personal relationships, opposites attract.
The majority of teenagers have good relationships with their parents.
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

4. behaviorial and mental processes
Goals of Psychology
Describe
Explain
Predict
Control
behaviorial and mental processes

5. From Speculation to Science: How Psychology Developed
Prior to 1879
Physiologists and philosophers studying questions about the mind
Wilhelm Wundt ( ) University of Leipzig, Germany
Campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline
Established the first laboratory for the study of psychology in 1879
Psychology was born
Prior to 1879 psychology did not exist as an independent field of study.
Psychological questions arose on a secondary basis in the fields of Physiology and Philosophy.
Wilhelm Wundt campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline.
He brought the scientific methods of physiology to bear on philosophical questions.
He developed the first laboratory in psychology at the University of Leipzig in 1879.

6. Structuralism First formal school of thought in psychology
Edward Titchner
The task of psychology is to investigate the basic elements of the conscious mind and examine how these elements are related.
introspection

7. The Battle of the “Schools” Begins: Structuralism vs. Functionalism
Structuralism – Edward Titchener
Analyze consciousness into basic elements
Introspection – Careful, systematic observations of one’s own conscious experience
Functionalism – William James
Investigate function of consciousness
Led to investigation of mental testing, developmental patterns, and sex differences
Two intellectual schools of thought regarding the science of psychology fought it out in the academic arena, with the fight led by Edward Titchener in the STRUCTURALISM corner and William James in the FUNCTIONALISM corner.
The structuralists believed that psychology should be about analyzing consciousness into its basic elements, just as physicists were studying how matter was made up of basic particles. To do this, Titchener and his followers relied on introspection, a process by which a person makes careful, systematic self-observations of one’s own conscious experience.
The functionalists thought this missed the point. James and his followers thought psychology should be about investigating the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.

8. Functionalism
An early school of psychology concerned with how humans and animals use mental processes to adapt to their environment.
William James: first American psychologist

9. Behaviorism
Views observable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter.
Emphasizes the key role of environment as a determinant of behavior.
Helped establish psychology as a science.
Founded by John Watson
B. F. Skinner

10. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
John B. Watson (1878–1958)
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Three Key Scientists in the Development of Behaviorism Building on the pioneering research of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, American psychologist John B. Watson founded the school of behaviorism. Behaviorism advocated that psychology should study observable behaviors, not mental processes. Following Watson, B. F. Skinner continued to champion the ideas of behaviorism. Skinner became one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth century. Like Watson, he strongly advocated the study of observable behaviors rather than mental processes.

11. Behaviorism: Redefining Psychology
John B. Watson ( ): United States
Founder of Behaviorism
Psychology = scientific study of behavior
Behavior = overt or observable responses or activities
Radical reorientation of psychology as a science of observable behavior
Study of consciousness abandoned
John B. Watson ( ) founded the behaviorist school of thought.
Basic tenet: Only observable behavior should be studied in scientific psychology.
Behavior, according to Watson, refers to an observable or overt response or activity of an organism.
Watson’s ideas radically changed the landscape of psychology.
Give up consciousness and have a science of behavior.

12. John Watson and the Nature-Nurture Debate
Nurture, not nature
“give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief…”
Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment (nurture)
Watson not only proposed a fundamental change in the focus of psychology, but he also took a strong stand on one of the oldest questions in psychology. . .are we who we are because of nature or nurture?
Watson argued strongly for nurture: while this quotation really oversimplified his stance, his writings did contribute to the strong environmental slant associated with the behaviorist school of thought.

13. Are people free? B.F. Skinner
B.F. Skinner ( ): United States
Environmental factors determine behavior
Responses that lead to positive outcomes are repeated
Responses that lead to negative outcomes are not repeated
Beyond Freedom and Dignity
More controversy regarding free will
Skinner championed a return to the strict focus on OBSERVABLE behavior only. He didn’t deny that mental events exist, just that they cannot be studied scientifically and are therefore outside the realm of the science of psychology.
The fundamental principle is that organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes and vice versa.
Skinner trained animals using this principle with much success; later, his followers showed that it also works with humans.
He stirred up controversy in the early 70’s when he published Beyond Freedom and Dignity, asserting that all behavior is governed by external stimuli…people are controlled by their environments, not themselves. Free will is an illusion.

14. Sigmund Freud and the Concept of the Unconscious Mind
Sigmund Freud ( ): Austria
Founded Psychoanalytic school of thought
Emphasis on unconscious processes influencing behavior
Unconscious = outside awareness
Freud was an Austrian physician who founded psychoanalytic psychology.
His work with people with psychological problems led him to believe that people are influenced by unconscious forces… that is, thoughts, memories, and desires that are outside conscious awareness.

15. Freud’s Ideas: Controversy and Influence
Behavior is influenced by the unconscious
Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central role in behavior
Controversial notions caused debate/resistance
Significant influence on the field of psychology
Freud believed that unconscious conflict, particularly with regard to sexual urges, plays a central role in behavior.
This was scandalous and offensive for several reasons. First, if we are influenced by forces we are not aware of, how can we be masters of our own minds? Where does free will come in? Second, in an era of sexual repression, the emphasis on sexuality was quite upsetting to many people.The controversial nature of Freud’s ideas caused great resistance in the field of psychology, and his ideas were not well received among academic circles.
Despite (or maybe even because of) the controversy, Freud’s ideas moved into the main stream, influencing thought in psychology, medicine, art, and literature.

16. The 1950’s: Opposition to Psychoanalytic Theory and Behaviorism
Charges that both were de-humanizing
Diverse opposition groups got together to form a loose alliance
A new school of thought emerged - Humanism
Led by Abraham Maslow ( ) and Carl Rogers ( )
Optimistic
Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans: freedom and personal growth
While Behaviorism and Psychoanalytic theory dominated mainstream psychology, many people had a hard time believing that people are not masters of their own fate.
The anti-Freud/Skinner crowd formed a loose alliance that eventually became a new school of thought—humanism—led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Humanism focused on the unique qualities of humans, especially free will and the potential for personal growth—a very optimistic view of human nature as opposed to the psychoanalysts or behaviorists.

17. Studying Psychology: Seven Unifying Themes
Psychology as a field of study:
Empirical
Theoretically diverse
Evolves in sociohistorical context
Behavior:
Determined by multiple causes
Shaped by cultural heritage
Influenced jointly by heredity and environment
People’s experience of the world is highly subjective.
Theme 1: Empiricism is the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation. Psychologists conduct scientific research to TEST their ideas.
Theme 2: A theory is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations. In psychology, we have many competing theories. Freud, for example, would explain behavior in different terms than would Skinner. There is often more than one way to look at something.
Theme 3: Psychology and other sciences are influenced by trends, issues, and values in society. For example, the rapid growth of clinical psychology was greatly influenced by the war-related surge in the demand for clinical services.
Theme 4: Behavior is governed by a complex network of interacting factors. Why will you make an A in psychology? Intelligence, study skills, memory, motivation?
Theme 5: Culture refers to the widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations. Cultural factors shape behavior and influence our interpretations of behavior.
Theme 6: Heredity and environment interact to mold behavior in complex ways. It’s not nature or nurture, but the impact of nurture on nature and nature on nurture.
Theme 7: Motives and expectations influence people’s experiences. The scientific method is used to keep this from being a problem.

18. Renewed Interest in Physiology and Cognition
Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge
Application of scientific methods to studying internal mental events
Biological perspective - behavior explained in terms of physiological processes
Cognition involves thinking or conscious experience. The dominance of behaviorist thought significantly decreased with the advent of cognitive psychology. Theorists such as Jean Piaget – who studied the development of cognition, Noam Chomsky – who studied the psychological underpinnings of language, and Herbert Simon and colleagues – who studied problem solving, paved a new path in psychology by using scientific methods (way beyond introspection) for studying cognitive processes.
At the same time, there were important findings in biological psychology. James Olds, in the 1950’s, demonstrated that animals could be made to experience emotions, such as pleasure and rage, through brain stimulation. Roger Sperry, in the 1980’s, demonstrated that the left and right halves of the brain have specialized functions and each handle different types of mental tasks.

19. Evolutionary Psychology: Human Adaptations
Central premise: natural selection occurs for behavioral, as well as physical, characteristics
Buss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby – 1980’s and 1990’s
Studied natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, personality, and development
Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not without criticism
The basic idea behind evolutionary psychology was not new; James and the functionalists were influenced by Darwin. The 1960’s and 1970’s brought breakthroughs in evolutionary biology that began to impact psychology in the late 1980’s.
David Buss, Martin Daly, Margo Wilson, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby led the new evolutionary psychology movement.
The above researchers met at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in the late 1990’s to set an ambitious research agenda for evolutionary psychology.
They basically gave life to the first new theoretical perspective in psychology.
While the perspective is gaining in influence, many critics hold that the theory is untestable and based on post hoc accounts for obvious behavioral phenomena.

20. The Evolutionary Perspective The evolutionary perspective analyzes behavior in terms of how it increases a species’ chances to survive and reproduce. Comparing behaviors across species can often lead to new insights about the adaptive function of a particular behavior. For example, humans, monkeys, and apes are all members of the primate family. Close bonds with caregivers are essential to the primate infant’s survival—whether that infant is a golden monkey at a wildlife preserve in northern China or a human infant at a family picnic in Norway. As you’ll see in later chapters, the evolutionary perspective has been applied to many different areas of psychology, including human relationships, mate selection, eating behavior, and emotional responses (Caporael, 2001).

21. Sociocultural approach
View that the cultural and social factors may be just as powerful as evolutionary and physiological factors in affecting behavior and mental processes.

22. Cultural Psychology: Recognizing Human Variation
Ethnocentrism – viewing one’s own group as superior and as the standard for judging
Historically: middle and upper class white males studying middle and upper class white males
1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors influence behavior
Growing global interdependence
Increased cultural diversity
The vast majority of psychological research seeking to identify general principles of behavior that could be applied to all of humanity has been conducted in the United States, by white middle and upper class males studying white middle and upper class males. Little attention was paid, historically, to how this research might apply to non-Western cultures, ethnic minorities, or women.
In the late 1980’s, however, a movement toward incorporating cultural factors into research and theory emerged. This was in part due to sociopolitical forces (civil rights movement, women’s movement, etc.), but most notably to the advances in international communication and increased global interdependence, as well as the increasingly diverse multicultural make-up of the Western world.

23. Martin Seligman’s epiphany Humanist concerns revisited
Positive Psychology
Martin Seligman’s epiphany
Humanist concerns revisited
Uses theory and research to better understand the positive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence
Positive subjective experiences
Positive individual traits
Positive institutions and communities
In 1997, Martin Seligman, having just been elected president of the APA, had an epiphany when his daughter told him he was too often “grumpy”. Seligman realized both that he was negative in his approach to life, and that psychology too was predominantly negative in its approach to human thought and behavior.
These concerns were similar to those raised by humanist psychologists some 50 years earlier.
Positive psychologists focus on those things that make life worth living, including (1) positive subjective experiences (e.g., happiness, love, gratitude), (2) positive individual traits (e.g., strengths and virtues), and (3) positive institutions and communities (e.g., strong families, healthy work environments).

24. Psychology Comes of Age as a Profession
Applied psychology
Clinical psychology
World War II
Clinical psychology receives institutional support
Applied psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with practical problems.
Clinical psychology is a part of applied psychology, concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders. Until World War II, clinicians constituted a small minority of psychologists. However, during WWII many academic psychologists were pressed into service to help evaluate and treat American servicemen. After the war, continuing treatment for veterans required more clinical psychologists, and the Veterans Administration funded many new training programs in clinical psychology. As a result, in a few years half the new Ph.D.’s in psychology were clinical psychologists.

25. Perspectives Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena
Psychology has multiple perspectives
Biological
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Positive Psychology
Cognitive
Cross-Cultural
Evolutionary

26. 4.2% Elementary and Secondary Schools
6.3% Business and Government
8.5% Other
19.4% Hospitals and Clinics
28.0% Colleges and Universities
The most common setting for psychologists is in private practice. These are obviously clinical or counseling psychologists. Hospitals and clinics are also a common setting for these psychologists.
The academic setting is also a common locale for psychologists.
33.6%
Private Practice
How Psychology Developed
Psychology Today
Seven Unifying Themes
Personal Application

27. 0.9% Clinical Neuropsychology
0.5% Forensic
0.6% Other
0.9% Clinical Neuropsychology
5.2%
School
6.1% Industrial/Organizational
14.7%
Counseling
This graphic, much like 11 shows how many clinical psychologists are employed in the industrialized world.
This mirrors the strong demand that is seen for slots in graduate programs in clinical psychology
Clinical psychology programs, excepting veterinary school, is the most difficult graduate program to gain admittance to.
72.1%
Clinical
How Psychology Developed
Psychology Today
Seven Unifying Themes
Personal Application

28. Figure 1.5
Membership in the American Psychological Association, 1900–2004. The steep rise in the number of psychologists in the APA since 1950 testifies to psychology’s remarkable growth as a science and a profession. If graduate student members are also counted, the APA has over
155,000 members.
Figure 1.5 Membership in the American Psychological Association, 1900–2004