1. 14 Prison Life CHAPTER CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. Examples of total institutions:
… places where people work, play, eat, sleep, and recreate together on a daily basis (coined by Erving Goffman, 1961).
Examples of total institutions:
Prisons
Concentration camps
Summer camps
Mental hospitals
Seminaries
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

3. The Male Inmate’s World

4. Prison Subculture
New inmates undergo a process of prisonization, through which they learn convict values, attitudes, roles, and language (argot) that make up the prison subculture.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

5. Prison Subcultures Sykes and Messinger:
The Inmate Social System (1960)
Five elements of the prison code:
Don’t interfere with interests of other inmates—don’t rat on others
Play it cool—do your own time
Don’t whine—be a man
Don’t exploit inmates—don’t break your word
Don’t be a sucker—don’t trust guards or staff
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

6. Prison Argot
Language/terms used in one institution are generally understood in another.
Examples:
ace duce—best friend
banger—a knife
billy—white man
boneyard—conjugal visit
chester—child molester
dog—homeboy or friend
ink—tattoos
man walking—signal guard coming
tree jumper—rapist
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

7. Prison Subcultures
Two Models of Prison Society:
Deprivation model—Prison subculture is an adaptation to the situation.
Importation model—Inmates bring values, roles, and behaviors with them from the outside world when they enter prison.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

8. Prison Lifestyles and Inmate Types
Some of the types of inmates that researchers have described are:
Mean dude
Hedonist
Opportunist
Retreatist
Legalist
Radical
Colonist
Religious
Realist
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

9. Inmate Types Mean Dude: Quick to fight Dangerous: best left alone
Receives frequent write-ups for violations
Spends a lot of time in solitary
Prison subculture supports role of mean dude by:
Expecting prisoners to be tough
Values that say “only the strong survive”
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

10. Inmate Types Hedonist: Opportunist:
… builds life around limited pleasures in prison (smuggling, gambling, drug running, homosexuality, etc.).
Opportunist:
… takes advantage of positive experiences prison has to offer, such as schooling, trade programs, counseling, etc.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

11. Inmate Types Retreatist: Legalist:
… attempts some form of psychological retreat from realities of prison, often becoming heavily involved in drug and alcohol use leading to depression and mental illness.
Legalist:
… the “jail house” lawyer—fights confinement through the law.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

12. … has strong religious ties and may be “born again.”
Inmate Types
Radical:
… views himself as a political prisoner, society = the oppressor.
Religious:
… has strong religious ties and may be “born again.”
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

13. … views prison as “home” Has many friends inside
Inmate Types
Colonist:
… views prison as “home”
Has many friends inside
Often holds position of power and/or
respect
Does not look forward to leaving
prison
Has been known to commit new
crimes to return to prison
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

14. Inmate Types
Realist:
… sees incarceration as a natural consequence of criminal activity— just an unfortunate part of “doing criminal business”—follows inmate code and does not get in trouble.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

15. Homosexuality in Prison
Prison subculture both constrains and
promotes homosexuality.
Words within argot describe homosexuality.
Newcomers frequently preyed upon.
Sex used as a commodity.
Prison rape does occur.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

16. Homosexual Assault in Prison
Sexual assaults in prison are likely to leave psychological scars long after the physical event is over.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

17. Homosexual Assault in Prison
Most sexual aggressors do not consider themselves homosexuals.
Sexual release is not the primary motivation for sexual attack.
Many aggressors must continue to participate in gang rapes to avoid being victims themselves.
The aggressors have themselves suffered much damage to their masculinity in the past.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

18. Women’s Prisons

19. Female Inmates There are more than 97,000 women in
state and federal facilities.
6.8% of the total prison population
Increasing at a faster rate than male
inmates
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

20. Prison Inmates by Gender and Ethnicity in State and Federal Prisons, 2003
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2005
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

21. National Profile of Women Offenders The National Institute of Corrections (2003)
According to the NIC, women offenders are:
Disproportionately women of color
In their early to mid-30s
Most likely to have been convicted of a
drug-related offense
From fragmented families that include
other family members who also have been
involved with the criminal justice system
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

22. National Profile of Women Offenders The National Institute of Corrections (2003)
Women offenders are:
Survivors of physicals and/or sexual abuse
as children and adults
Individuals with significant substance
abuse problems
Individuals with multiple physical and
mental health problems
Unmarried mothers of minor children
Individuals with a high school diploma or
GED but limited vocational training and
sporadic work histories
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

23. Histories/pathways to crime include:
Personal Histories and Pathways to Crime The National Institute of Corrections (2003)
Histories/pathways to crime include:
Survival strategies resulting from poverty and/or physical, sexual, or substance abuse
Substance abuse
Physical health
Mental health
Children and marital status
Education and employment
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

24. Gender Responsiveness
Critics say that the prison system was not
designed for women. The NIC recommends:
Creating a system structured to meet the needs
of female inmates.
Developing gender-responsive policies and
practices cognizant of and effectively
addressing women’s pathways to criminality.
Modifying criminal justice sanctions and
interventions to recognize female offender’s
general low risk to public safety.
Considering women’s relationships and roles in
the community in deciding appropriate
correctional sanctions.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

25. Institutions for Women
General descriptions of institutions that house
women inmates include:
Usually located in towns with fewer than 25,000
inhabitants.
Typically not designed to house female inmates.
Some also house men.
Few have programs especially designed for
female offenders.
Few major disturbances or escapes reported.
High rates of substance abuse.
Few work assignments.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

26. Social Structure in Women’s Prisons
Some researchers have discovered a
social structure in which women form
relationships with each other that are
similar to those experienced outside of
prison life.
Courtship, marriage
Kinship systems
Additionally, lesbianism and staff-
inmate sexual misconduct exists.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

27. Types of Female Inmates
Esther Hoffman (1972) found three types
of female adaptation styles to prison life:
The square
The cool
The life
Recently, another type of inmate has
arrived: “crack kids.”
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

28. Prison Life Making it in Prison, Esther Heffernan (1972) Square
has few early experiences with criminal life
tends to sympathize with values and attitudes of conventional society
represents a small number of prisoners
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

29. Prison Life Women Cool more likely to be career offenders
tend to keep to themselves
generally supportive of prison values
Lifer
familiar with life of crime
have repeat arrests for prostitution, drug use, and theft
full participants in economic, social, and family arrangements of prison
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

30. Violence in Women’s Prison
Violence is less frequent than in
men’s facilities.
Violence sometimes comes from staff.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

31. Addressing the Problems of Imprisoned Women
The Task Force on the Female Offender
recommends the following changes:
Make substance abuse programs available.
Build greater literacy skills.
House females in separate facilities.
Develop programs allowing women to keep children in the facility.
Ensure equal access to assistance with programming.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

32. Prison Staff

33. The Staff World About 350,000 people are employed in
corrections. Staff roles can include:
Warden
Psychologist
Counselor
Area supervisor
Program director
Instructor
Correctional officers
Physician
Therapist
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

34. Correctional Officers
Like inmates, correctional officers undergo a socialization process that helps them function by the official and unofficial rules of staff society.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

35. Custody + Control
Prison staffers are most concerned with custody and control.
Has led to institutionalized procedures
for ensuring safety.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

36. Professionalism of Correctional Officers
Corrections personnel are becoming better trained and more proficient, leading to greater professionalism.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

37. Prison Life The Staff World
Staff is mostly concerned with custody and control.
Officers undergo socialization process that helps them function by official and unofficial rules of prison.
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

38. Prison Life The Staff World Types of correctional officers: dictator
friend
merchant
turnkey
climber
reformer
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

39. Prison Staff
Dictator
A dictator uses prison rules to enforce their own brand of discipline.
Some use false bravado to hide their fear of prisoners.
They may have sadistic personalities.
This type of correctional officer is the one most likely to be targeted for vengeance.
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

40. Prison Staff
Friend
This type tries to fraternize with the prisoners by trying to be “one of the guys.”
Usually, these are the young and inexperienced officers.
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

41. Prison Staff participates in the prison economy
Merchant
participates in the prison economy
supplies drugs, pornography, alcohol, and sometimes even weapons to prisoners
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

42. Prison Staff Turnkey cares little about what goes on in the prison
may be close to retirement or may have become alienated from job
“turnkey” - comes from prison language - Someone who is just there to open and shut doors and cares nothing more than just getting through the day.
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

43. Prison Staff
Climber
typically a young officer who is interested in advancement
more interested in their own careers than the problems of prisoners
pursues additional schooling and training programs
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

44. Prison Staff
Reformer
A reformer tends to lend a sympathetic ear to the personal needs of prisoners.
They are motivated by personal ideals.
Some of these officers are very religious.
Prisoners perceive these officers to be naïve, but harmless.
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

45. Prison Riots

46. Prison Riots 1971—Attica Prison, NY 1987—Atlanta Federal Penitentiary
1989—State Correctional Institution, Camp Hill, PA
1993—Southern Correctional Facility, Lucasville, OH
2004—Arizona State Prison
complex-Lewis
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

47. Causes of Prison Riots
Insensitive prison administration and neglected inmate demands
Carry-over of violent criminal lifestyles
Dehumanizing prison conditions, including: —overcrowding —lack of personal expression
Regulate inmate society and redistribute power among inmates
Power vacuums are created among prison administration
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

48. Stages of Prison Riots
Explosion which involves binges (alcohol and drugs), burned buildings, hostage taking, settling of old grudges
Organization into inmate led groups
Confrontation with authorities
Termination through negotiation or physical confrontation
Reaction and explanation usually by investigative commission
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

49. Prisoner Rights

50. Hands Off Doctrine Prior to the 1960s, American courts had taken
a neutral approach—commonly called the
hands-off doctrine—toward the running of
prisons.
Rested on the belief that inmates experienced civil death.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

51. Legal Basis of Prisoner Rights
In Pell v. Procunier (1974) the U.S.
Supreme Court established the
“balancing test.”
Balancing test—attempts to weigh the rights of
individuals against the state’s authority to
make laws or otherwise restrict a person’s
freedom in order to protect its interests and its
citizens.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

52. Precedents in Prisoner Rights

53. Communications and Visitation
First Amendment guarantees of
freedom of speech apply to inmates’
rights in three areas:
Receipt of mail
Communications with others (especially those on the outside)
Visitation
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

54. Communications and Visitation
Receipt of Mail
The courts generally have not allowed restrictions on receipt of published mail.
Magazines that depict deviant sexual behavior can be banned.
A prisoner’s mail can be censored if necessary for security reasons.
Magazines, newspapers, and the like must be mailed from the publisher.
Prisons cannot ban nude pictures of inmates’ wives or girlfriends.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

55. Communications and Visitation
Communications with Others
In McNamara v. Moody (1979) a federal court upheld an inmate’s right to write vulgar letters to his girlfriend.
Prisoners have no inherent right to publish material for use by other prisoners.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

56. Communications and Visitation
The U.S. Supreme Court upheld a policy that prohibited all inmate visits in Block v. Rutherford (1984).
In Overton v. Bazzetta (2003), the Court upheld a state’s visitation plan that limited visitation for certain substance abusing inmates.
Media members get no special privileges for interviews, but cannot be denied correspondence.
Policies for media access must be administered fairly and without bias.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

57. The First and Fourteenth Amendments provide the basis for
Religious Freedom
The First and Fourteenth
Amendments provide the basis for
inmates’ rights claim in the area of
religious freedom.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

58. Religious Freedom Cruz v. Beto (1972)
Established that prisoners must be given a “reasonable opportunity” to pursue their faith, even if it differs from traditional forms of worship.
Meeting facilities must be provided for religious purposes when those same facilities are made available to other groups of prisoners for other purposes.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

59. Religious Freedom Prisoners in segregation do not have
to be permitted the opportunity to
attend religious services.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

60. Religious Freedom Possessing Items of Worship
In Dettmer v. Landon a federal court held that a prisoner who claimed to practice witchcraft must be provided with the artifacts needed for worship.
Drugs, dangerous substances, and dangerous items of worship may be banned.
It is acceptable to ban wearing beards, even those grown for religious reasons (Hill v. Blackwell [1985]).
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

61. Religious Freedom The Religious Land Use and Institutionalized
Persons Act (RLUIPA) of 2000.
“No government shall impose a substantial burden
on the religious exercise of a person residing in or
confined to an institution even if the burden results
from a rule of general applicability, unless the
government demonstrates that imposition of the
burden on that person 1) is in furtherance of
compelling governmental interest; and 2) is the least
restrictive means of furthering that compelling
governmental interest.”
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

62. Access to the Courts and Legal Assistance
Bounds v. Smith (1977) recognized the
right of prisoners to petition the
court. It is the duty of the state to assist
prisoners in preparation and filing of
legal papers.
Assistance could be in the form of trained personnel or institutional law libraries.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

63. Access to the Courts and Legal Assistance
The Court in Lewis v. Casey (1996)
overturned part of Bounds.
Prisoners are not guaranteed the “wherewithal to file any and every type of legal claim.”
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

64. Access to the Courts and Legal Assistance
The Court in Johnson v. Avery (1968)
held that prisoners under correctional
supervision have a right to consult
“jailhouse lawyers” for advice when
assistance from trained professional is
not available.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

65. Access to the Courts and Legal Assistance
Indigent inmates:
Do not have the right to an appointed lawyer if no judicial proceedings have been initiated against them.
Must be provided with stamps for purposes of legal correspondence.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

66. Medical Care In Estelle v. Gamble (1976) the U.S.
Supreme Court concerned itself with
“deliberate indifference” on part of staff
toward prisoner’s need for medical attention.
Court held prison officials responsible for providing adequate medical care.
Deliberate indifference requires both actual knowledge and disregard of risk of harm (per Hudson v. McMillan [1992]).
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

67. Medical Care The issue of medical care includes
whether inmates can be forced to take
medication.
In Washington v. Harper (1990), the U.S. Supreme Court held that prisoners can refuse the involuntary administration of antipsychotic drugs unless government officials can demonstrate an “overriding justification” as to why the drugs may be necessary.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

68. Medical Care In Pennsylvania Department of
Corrections v. Yeskey (1998), the U.S.
Supreme Court held that the Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990
applies to prisons and to prison inmates.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

69. Protection from Harm
Based on the Eighth Amendment, inmates have the right to:
Food, water, and shelter
Protection from foreseeable attack
Protection from predictable sexual
attack
Protection against suicide
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

70. Protection from Harm
In Farmer v. Brennan (1994), the Court extended the deliberate indifference standard to claims of liability for harm.
Liability exists only if a prison official
“knows that inmates face a substantial risk
of serious harms and disregards that risk
by failing to take reasonable measures to
abate it.”
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

71. Protection from Harm
In Helling v. McKinney (1993), the Court maintained that prison officials are responsible for maintaining environmental conditions under which health problems might be prevented from developing.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

72. Privacy Most major Supreme Court cases have held
that prisoners do not have a reasonable
expectation to privacy when incarcerated.
Examples:
Katz v. U.S. (1967)
U.S. v. Ready (1978)
Hudson v. Palmer (1984)
Block v. Rutherford (1984)
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

73. Prisoner Rights Hudson v. Palmer (1984)
Palmer was a prisoner, Hudson was a correctional officer.
Palmer claimed Hudson had destroyed some of his property following a cell search.
Palmer’s complaint centered on lack of due process which accompanied the destruction.
Court ruled that prison officials need to be able to conduct thorough, unannounced searches, and that these searches preclude prisoner privacy in personal possessions.
© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

74. Grievances Prisons must provide formal opportunities to
hear inmate grievances.
Grievances handled internally.
All sizable prisons have established procedures
whereby an inmate files a complaint and
receives a mandated responses.
Procedures may include a hearing board made of both inmates and staff, or a single staff member may be responsible.
Dissatisfied inmates may appeal to an external source.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

75. Disciplinary actions by prison authorities
may also require a formalized hearing
process.
Sanctions cannot be levied against inmates without appropriate due process (Wolff v. McDonnell [1974]).
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

76. Disciplinary Actions Courts generally have held that inmates
going before disciplinary hearing boards
are entitled to:
Notice of the charges brought against them
The chance to organize a defense
An impartial hearing
The opportunity to present witnesses and evidence in their behalf
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

77. A Return to the Hands-Off Doctrine
Many recent Supreme Court decisions
have signaled what seems like a partial
return to “hands off doctrine.” For
example, consider:
Wilson v. Seiter et. al (1991)
Sandin v. Conner (1995)
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

78. Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) of 1996
The Prison Litigation Reform Act includes a
number of provisions that are designed to reduce
the number of frivolous lawsuits alleging
unconstitutional prison conditions and reduce the
number of state inmates filing lawsuits in federal
courts.
Research suggest that the PLRA has cut down on
the number of lawsuits and changed the types of
suits filed, though some opponents argue that it
could stifle inmates facing real deprivations.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

79. Current Issues Today, prisons face special problems,
particularly with:
AIDS
Geriatric offenders
Mentally ill and mentally deficient inmates
Terrorism
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

80. AIDS According to a 2004 Justice Department report,
AIDS incidents increased 12-fold since 1987
Some inmates come to prison infected;
others contract the HIV virus while
incarcerated.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

81. Geriatric Inmates The number of prisoners aged 55 and
over increased 300% between 1990 and
2005.
Geriatric inmates have special needs.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

82. Mentally Ill Inmates Some inmates are neurotic, have personality
problems, or have serious psychological
disorders.
Mentally ill and mentally deficient inmates increase tension.
Few state-run correctional facilities have any substantial capacity for in-depth psychiatric treatment of inmates who are seriously mentally disturbed.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

83. Mentally Deficient Inmates
Some studies estimate that about 10% of the
inmate population are mentally deficient.
Inmates with low IQs have special problems adjusting or completing programs.
Most states “mainstream” these inmates.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

84. Terrorism Prison administrators must be concerned with:
Intelligence-gathering capabilities
Outside terrorist activities
Possibilities of bioterrorism
The threat of inmate-initiated terrorist acts
CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 9e PRENTICE HALL
By Frank Schmalleger ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc.