2. pH
pH is a measure of acidity of a solution on a scale that is usually thought of as going from 0 to 14.
For concentrated solutions of strong acids and bases it can extend beyond this range.
At 25 oC the pH of water (a neutral liquid) is 7.
If the pH of a solution is below 7 then the solution is acidic and if above 7 it is alkaline.
The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution; the higher the pH, the more basic the solution.

3. Self Dissociation of Water
Water dissociates to a very slight extent to produce both hydrogen and hydroxide ions, so that in aqueous solutions an equilibrium exists between these ions and the undissociated water molecules:
In pure water the concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions that results from this are equal, hence it is described as neutral.
An acidic solution has an excess of hydrogen ions, whilst an alkaline solution has an excess of hydroxide ions.

4. pH of Water
In pure water at 25°C, the concentration of both hydrogen and hydroxide ions from the dissociation above is 10–7 mol dm–3, in other words less than one molecule in 10 million is dissociated.
The pH (which stands for power of Hydrogen) of a solution depends upon the concentration of hydrogen ions and is equal to power of 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration with the sign reversed.
Hence the pH of water under these conditions is 7 as [H+ (aq)] = 10–7 mol dm–3.

5. Adding an Acid or a Base to Water
If an acid is added so the concentration of hydrogen ions is increased by a factor of ten (for example, from 10–4 to 10–3 mol dm–3) then the pH decreases by one unit (in this case 4 to 3).
Adding a base to an aqueous solution will reduce the concentration of hydrogen ions by displacing the above equilibrium to the left, in accordance with Le Chatelier’s principle.
If the concentration of hydroxide ions is increased by a factor of ten (for example, from 10–6 to 10–5 mol dm–3) the concentration of hydrogen ions will be decreased by a factor of ten (from 10–8 to 10–9 mol dm‑3) and the pH will increase by one unit (in this case from 8 to 9).

6. Determination of the pH of a solution
The pH of a solution can be determined either by using a pH meter, or by using universal indicator.
This contains a number of indicators that change colour at different pH values, so that the colour of the mixture will vary continuously with the pH of the solution.
The indicators used are chosen so that the colour changes occurs in a‘rainbow’ sequence.
The relationship between pH, [H+], [OH–], the colours that universal indicator turns and the acidity of the solution are given in Figure 802.

7. pH meter Tests the voltage of the electrolyte
Converts the voltage to pH
Very cheap, accurate
Must be calibrated with a buffer solution

8. pH meter

10. NEUTRALISATION When an acid reacts with a base it is called
Universal indicator can go any colour in the rainbow
Your homework is to test some liquids at home using the indicator paper.
Be Careful !

11. pH indicators
Indicators are dyes that can be added that will change color in the presence of an acid or base.
Some indicators only work in a specific range of pH
Once the drops are added, the sample is ruined
Some dyes are natural, like radish skin or red cabbage

12. Natural Indicators

15. Dissociation Constant of Water
In aqueous solutions molecular water is in equilibrium with hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions:
In pure water at 25 °C (298 K) the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are both equal to 1.00 × 10–7 mol dm–3.
Hence in an aqueous solution at this temperature, the product of the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions is always 1.00 × 10–14 mol2 dm–6.
This is known as the dissociation constant (or ionic product constant) of water and given the symbol Kw:

16. The Effect of Temperature on the pH of Water
Because it involves breaking bonds, the forward reaction of the above equilibrium is endothermic so that as the temperature is raised the equilibrium shifts to the right and the equilibrium constant increases.
This means that at higher temperatures [H+] > 10–7 mol dm–3, so the pH of pure water is < 7, even though it is still neutral (i.e. [H+] = [OH–] ). For example at 50oC the concentration of both hydrogen and hydroxide ions increases to 3.05 × 10–7 mol dm–3 and the pH of pure, neutral water is 6.5.
See Figure 803.

18. Inverse Relationship between [H+] and [ OH- ]
Substituting in the equation above, it can be seen that if the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution is 1.00 × 10–4 mol dm–3 then the concentration of hydroxide ions will be:

19. pH and pOH
The pH of a solution depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution and it is defined by the equation:
pH = – log [H+] (hence [H+] = 10 –pH )
This means that the pH of a solution in which [H+] is 1.00 × 10–5 mol dm–3 is 5.00.
For non–integer values a calculator must be used, so if [H+] is 5.00 × 10–4 mol dm–3 then the pH is 3.30 and if the pH is 11.70, then [H+] is 2.00 × 10–12 mol dm–3.
This can be combined with the Kw expression above to calculate the pH of alkaline solutions.
In a mol dm–3 solution of sodium hydroxide,the [OH–] is 1.00 × 10–3 mol dm–3, so that [H+] will be 1.00×10–11 mol dm–3 hence the pH of the solution is
pOH is similarly defined as:
pOH = – log [OH–] (hence [OH–] = 10–pOH )

20. pKw In a similar manner, pKw is used for –logKw (14.00 at 25 oC).
Hence as [H+][OH–] = Kw
pH + pOH = pKw = 14.00
The pOH of a solution with a pH of is therefore 2.30 ( ).
Note that [H+] or [OH–] can never decrease to zero as an equilibrium is present between water and the [H+] and [OH–] ions.

21. Weak Acid Dissociation Constant
Consider a weak acid in equilibrium with its ions in aqueous solution:
HA (aq) H+ (aq) + A– (aq)
for the general case or, in the specific case of ethanoic acid:
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)
The equilibrium constant for this reaction, known as the acid dissociation constant (Ka), is a measure of the strength of the acid – the greater its value the stronger the acid.
so for ethanoic acid

22. Weak Acid Dissociation Constant
The value of Ka is often expressed as a pKa, the relationship being similar to that between [H+] and pH:
pKa = – log Ka (hence Ka = 10-pKa)
The Ka of ethanoic acid, for example, is 1.74 × 10–5
mol dm–3 at 298 K , so that its pKa is 4.76.
The greater the pKa value, the weaker the acid.
Note that Ka , like Kw , varies with temperature and so calculations involving it only apply to a particular temperature.

23. Calculations by using Ka
The expression for the equilibrium constant below
relates together
the acid dissociation constant (which may be found from the pKa)
the concentration of the acid and
the concentration of hydrogen ions/conjugate base (which must be equal in a solution of the acid and may therefore be found from the pH).
Knowing any two of these quantities,the third may be found.

24. Calculations by using Ka
Consider the equilibrium:

25. Calculations by using Ka
This much simpler equation can be used in calculations.
When the result has been obtained, the values of x and a can be checked to see if the approximation is valid.
Note that a second assumption made is that [H+] = [A–], in other words the H+ from the dissociation of water molecules may be neglected, which can be checked when [H+] is known.
It can generally be regarded as valid if pH < 6.
A third assumption in these calculations is that the dissociation occurs at 25 °C.

31. Validity of the Approximation
Note that here the validity of the approximation is marginal as x is ≈ 7% of a.
In this case solving the equation without the approximation is only slightly more difficult and gives a more accurate value for the concentration of mol dm–3.

32. Calculations by using Kb
When a weak base , (B) is dissolved in water, the equilibrium established can be dealt with in terms of the dissociation of its conjugate weak acid , (BH+) using the equations below.
Alternatively it can be considered in terms of the equilibrium between the base and water:

33. Calculations by using Kb
For this equilibrium making similar assumptions to those above for weak acids:
Kb is known as the base dissociation constant.
Similarly:
pKb = – log Kb
Calculations can be carried out using these equilibrium expressions in a similar manner to those for acids.

36. Solution Continued

37. Weak Acid and its Conjugate Base

38. Weak Acid and its Conjugate Base

41. Buffer Solutions
If a small volume of a strong acid or base is added to water, then the pH of the water will change significantly:
For example 0.1 cm3 (≈2 drops) of 1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid added to a litre of water will change the pH from 7 to 4 (new [H+] = 1 × 0.1/1000 = 10-4 mol dm–3).
If the acid were added to a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base rather than water, then the change in pH would be much less.
Similarly, adding a small volume of a strong base to such a mixture has little effect on its pH.
Such solutions, which resist a change of pH when a small amount of a strong acid or a strong base is added to them, are known as buffer solutions.

42. Addition of Strong Acid or Base to a Buffer Solution
Consider the equilibrium in which there are significant amounts of both HA and its conjugate base A– :
HA (aq) H+ (aq) + A– (aq)
If a small amount of a strong acid is added, the additional hydrogen ions displace the equilibrium to the left (Le Chatelier’s principle) and the [H+] falls to near its original value, so that the effect of the added acid is minimised, and the pH is little changed.
Similarly if a small amount of a strong base is added, the hydroxide ions react with the hydrogen ions to form water.
The equilibrium is therefore displaced to the right until [H+] increases to near its original value, that is the effect of the added base is minimised and again the pH is little changed.

43. Effective Buffer
In order to behave as an effective buffer the concentration of both the acid/base and its salt must be much greater than the strong acid/base added.
The greater the concentration, the better the buffering action.
For this reason
a weak acid on its own would not act as a buffer (there is insufficient of the anion to react with added H+ )
nor would a solution of its salt (there is insufficient of the undissociated acid to react with added OH– ).
A buffer therefore consists of a solution containing weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid.

44. Preparation of Buffer Solutions
Buffer solutions may be prepared in a number of ways:
The simplest way is to mix solutions of the weak acid HA (for example ethanoic acid) and a salt of the weak acid (in this case an ethanoate, such as sodium ethanoate, which will provide ethanoate ions).
Similarly solutions of a weak base (for example ammonia) and a salt of the weak base (in this case an ammonium salt, such as ammonium chloride) may be used.
Alternatively
adding a little strong base to an excess of weak acid (adding sodium hydroxide to excess ethanoic acid),
or adding a little strong acid to excess weak base (adding hydrochloric acid to excess ammonia) produces similar buffer solutions.

45. Adding H+ to Acidic Buffer
Consider the example of the acidic buffer consisting of ethanoic acid and ethanoate ions (from sodium ethanoate), which are in equilibrium:
CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO– (aq) + H+ (aq)
(i) If H+ ions from a small amount of strong acid are added to the buffer, these will react with the conjugate base:
CH3COO– (aq) + H+ (aq) CH3COOH (aq)
(the reverse reaction of the above equilibrium)
The H+ ions are therefore removed from the solution and the pH increases back to near its original level.

46. Adding OH– to Acidic Buffer
(ii) If OH– ions from a small amount of strong base are added to the buffer, these react with the undissociated acid:
OH– (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) H2O (l)+CH3COO– (aq)
(the forward reaction of the above equilibrium)
The OH– ions are therefore removed from the solution and the pH decreases back to near its original level.

47. Adding H+ to Basic Buffer
Similarly consider the example of the basic buffer consisting of ammonia and ammonium ions (from ammonium chloride), which are in equilibrium:
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
(i) If H+ ions from a small amount of strong acid are added to the buffer, these will react with the ammonia:
NH3 (aq) + H+ (aq) NH4+ (aq)
(the forward reaction of the above equilibrium)
The H+ ions are therefore removed from the solution and the pH increases back to near its original level.

48. Adding OH– to Basic Buffer
(ii) If OH– ions from a small amount of strong base are added to the buffer, these react with the ammonium ions:
OH– (aq) + NH4+ (aq) H2O (l) + NH3 (aq)
(the reverse reaction of the above equilibrium)
The OH– ions are therefore removed from the solution and the pH decreases back to near its original level.

49. Blood One common example of a buffer solution is blood.
It is vital that the pH of blood remains quite constant as enzymes only function effectively over a limited pH range.
The buffering equilibrium is:
CO2 (aq) + H2O (l) H+ (aq) + HCO3– (aq)
The pH of blood (7.4) is relatively resistant to addition of small amounts of strong acid or strong base, thus, if 0.01 mol H+ or 0.01 mol OH– is added to 1.0 dm3 blood, the pH changes by only 0.1 unit.

50. pH of Buffer Solutions
The concentration of hydrogen ions, and hence the pH, of buffer solutions may be calculated using the formula for the acid dissociation constant:
This may be rearranged into the slightly more convenient form where [HA] is approximated to the concentration of the acid and [A–] to that of the conjugate base:

51. pH of Buffer Solutions
The pH of the buffer solution therefore depends on the Ka of the weak acid and also on the ratio of the concentrations of the acid and its conjugate base, so that a buffer solution of any desired pH can be prepared.
Note that the dependence is only on the ratio of these concentrations and not on their actual values.
This means that the pH of a buffer does not change when it is diluted, but it will be less effective as the amount of strong acid/base required to completely react with all of one of the buffer components decreases.

52. Optimum Buffer Solution
A buffer is most effective (an optimum buffer) when the concentration of acid and base are equal, and the pH is equal to the pKa which is
4.74 for ethanoic acid / ethanoate ion
7.20 for dihydrogenphosphate / hydrogenphosphate
9.25 for ammonia / ammonium ion.
It can however work reasonably effectively provided both components are present in reasonable concentrations.
In practice the effective buffer range of any weak acid/base is in the range pKa ±1.

53. Buffer Calculations
The pH of a buffer may be calculated knowing the Ka value of the acid and the concentrations of the conjugate acid and base.
Similarly, if the composition of the buffer and its pH is known, then the dissociation constant of the acid may be found.
The formula chosen for the calculation is a matter of personal preference, taking into consideration the data provided.
Both are given in the example below.

56. Buffer Animation

57. Buffer Animation

58. pH Buffer Animation