1. Chapter 22
Age of Nation-States

2. 1700

3. 1800

4. 1900

5. The Crimean War [ ]
Russia [claimed protectorship over the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire]
Ottoman Empire
Great Britain
France
Piedmont-Sardinia
Causes
Russia wanted to extend influence over Ottoman territories (Balkans)
Russia angry when Ottomans assign care of holy places to Roman Catholics

6. The Crimean War
War erupts between Russia and Ottoman Empire when Russia occupies Moldavia and Walachia
Ottoman Empire > “The Sick Man of Europe”
France and Britain join the Ottomans, to Russia’s surprise and displeasure, the Austrians and Prussians remain neutral
Motives > Great Britain?
Mediterranean Sea is their lake
Poorly equipped and commanded troops lead to massive suffering on both sides
Helped by French and British forces, the Ottomans defeat the Russians

7. The Crimean War

8. Crimean War Great Figures Florence Nightingale Alexander II of Russia
Addressed inadequate medical treatment
Helped found modern nursing profession
First women to achieve international fame
Alexander II of Russia
Succeeded his father during the war
Negotiated peace and instituted reform

9. Crimean War
Results
Russia gives up land around Danube River and Black Sea
Russia renounces its claims to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire
Military embarrassments
Large loss of life
Image of invincible Russia crushed
Reforms and rearms > becomes stronger
Sardinia can work with France to try to est. Italy
Concert of Europe? dissolved
General meeting between nations to settle differences
Balance of power restored

10. Ottoman Reforms Tanzimat – reorganization of the empire
Liberalized economy
Freedom of religion
Hatti-i-Humayun – spelled out rights of non-Muslims
Equal chances in the military, state employment, and admission to state schools
Abolished torture
Gave property rights
In some regions of the empire, local rulers made reforms hard to enforce
Reforms are an attempt to modernize & secularize the empire > make Ottomans more “European”
Fighting to survive
Need to gain loyalty of Christian subjects

11. Italian Nationalist Leaders
Giuseppi Garibaldi [The “Sword”]
King Victor Emmanuel II
Giuseppi Mazzini [The “Heart”]
Count Cavour [The “Head”]

12. Italian Unification & the Republicans
Nationalism aspirations emerge when Napoleon I occupies Italy
Giuseppe Mazzini first attempts to establish an Italian republic
Approach called romantic republicanism
Mazzini > most important nationalist leader in Europe
Mazzini with help of Giuseppe Garibaldi lead insurrections
Goal > Drive out Austria
Obstacles to unification
Austria
Papacy
People > conservatives in Italy
1850 > “Italy” > geographic expression rather than political entity

13. Count Camillo Cavour Minister of Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia)
Transformed Italy into a nation-state under a constitutional monarchy, rather than a republic
How?
Armed force
Secret diplomacy
Cavour a nationalist but different from Mazzini
Rejected republicanism > support monarchy
Economic and material progress replaced romantic ideals
Used the French to achieve his goal
Drives out Austrians in the north
South > uses Garibaldi and romantic republicanism to conquer rest of peninsula

14. The Italian State Victor Emanuel I is named King of Italy (1861)
Conservative Constitutional Monarchy
Tensions high between industrialized Piedmont north and rural, poor Southern Italy
Conservative constitutional monarchy put into place, but Parliament is filled with corruption
Venetia in 1866 and Rome (minus Vatican City) in 1870 become part of Italy
Still some territory in North controlled by Austria
Desire to liberate “Italia irredenta” > unredeemed Italy

15. German Unification
Most important political development in Europe between
Transformed balance of power
Congress of Vienna est. German Confederation
Made up of 39 diff states
Austria & Prussia largest
1850s unification seemed remote
William I (Hohenzollern family) becomes king in 1861
Fights with Parliament (liberals) over taxes to increase army
Turns to Otto Von Bismarck for help

16. Otto von Bismarck
Would be more responsible for reshaping European history more than anybody else for the next 30 years (1860’s-1890’s)
Political career extensive
Starts out a reactionary but mellows into a conservative
Prime minister 1862
Used German nationalism as a strategy to enable Prussian conservatives to outflank Prussian liberals

17. Bismarck’s Wars & Government
Bismarck did not want to include all German speaking lands into united Germany
Especially Austria
Unification required complex diplomacy
Danish War (1864)
Austria & Prussia defeat Denmark
Bismarck gains prestige
Through diplomacy gains allies in Italy, France, & Russia
Austro-Prussian War (1866)
Tension over territory won in Danish War
Prussia wins
Treaty of Prague makes Prussia only major power among German Confederation
Northern German Confederation formed
Each state governed itself > military under federal control
Pres. was Prussian King & Chancellor was Bismarck
Two House Legislature > Bundesrat & Reichstag
Germany becomes essentially a military monarchy
Prussian liberals defeated

18. Franco-Prussian War
Bismarck needed southern Germany to complete unification
Spanish Bourbon queen dethroned by coup & replaced by a Hohenzollern king
France angry
Ems telegram provokes war
Napoleon III not only defeated but captured
1871 in Hall of Mirrors in Palace of Versailles the German Empire is declared
Germany also receives Alsace and part of Lorraine
A new powerful states emerges rich in natural resources
Blow to European liberalism > Germany a conservative state
France & Austria (led by Habsburgs) have to make a change

19. France Goes From Empire to Third Republic
France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war spelled the end of the liberal empire
A govt. of national defense is created > new National Assembly > makes settlement with Prussia > Treaty of Frankfurt > people of Paris feel betrayed
The Paris Commune – radicals and socialists attempt to govern Paris away from the rest of France, but are put down by the National Assembly at the cost of 20,000 lives / victory for the nation-state
The Third Republic – when quarreling monarchists can’t agree on a new king, the National Assembly turns to a republic system
Two legislative house
a Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage
a Senate chosen indirectly
President elected by both legislative houses

20. The Dreyfus Affair
French Captain Alfred Dreyfus (Jewish) is falsely accused of passing secret information to the Germans (1894)
Evidence was weak (forged)
Dreyfus is sent to Devil’s Island, secrets still cont. to flow
Evidence of forgery comes in, but he is not acquitted
Dreyfus is still guilty according to the army, French Catholic Church, political conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers
Liberal novelist Emile Zola, along with numerous liberals, radicals, and socialists call for a new trial for Dreyfus
President of France pardons Dreyfus and the conviction is set aside in 1906
Significance?
Puts conservatives on the defensive for framing an innocent man and embracing anti-Semitism
Unites groups in the political left
Divides Third Republic

21. The Hapsburg Empire The empire in the 1840’-1860’s remained
dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian as compared with the rest of Europe
Francis Joseph & ministers attempted to centralize administration
Austrians (German Speaking) dominating govt.
Failure to support Russia in Crimean War meant Tsar Alexander II would no longer help preserve Habsburg rule in Hungary
Defeat by France in 1859 & Prussia in 1866 confirms that a new government is needed

22. The Hapsburg Dual Monarchy
Empire made up of several different ethnicities
Main two > Austrians and Hungarians
Solution > Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867
Dual Monarchy > Austria-Hungary
Francis Joseph crowned king of Hungary
Almost two different states besides sharing
Common monarch, army, and foreign relations
Magyars gained a free hand (kind of happy currently)
Had their own govt. basically (their own parliament)
City of Vienna
*Center of medical & cultural excellence
*Rebuilt to a grand scale
*Vicious anti-Semitism aroused here

23. Nationality Unrest
Magyars now had nationality as they basically controlled the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary
The Romanians, Croatians, and especially the Czechs opposed the Compromise of 1867 > Why?
German speaking Austrians & Hungarian Magyars controlled all the other nationalities
Czechs > most vocal > want what Hungarians have
Political instability follows
Nationalism grows stronger in late 1800s
Language was the defining factor for a nation
Wanting to be linked by a common race and language; Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Italians, Bosnians, and Serbs all look towards nationhood
Consequences of nationalism?
Two World Wars and unrest even today

24. Russian Reforms under Alexander II
Serfdom abolished > for a long time only nation where it existed
Positives – serfs gain rights to marry without permission, to buy and sell land, to sue in court and to pursue trades
Negatives – over a forty-nine year period serfs have to pay back, including interest, their landlords in order to receive their land
Result was large debt
Fortunately in 1905, the govt. finally cancelled the debts
Local government reform – local government run by a system of provincial and county councils, which proved to be largely ineffective
Underfunded
Judicial reform – included equality before the law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury
Military reform – service requirements lowered from twenty-five to fifteen years and discipline is relaxed slightly
Largest military in Europe
Repression in Poland – Poland placed under Russian laws and language
Merely seen as a Russian province

25. Russian Revolutionaries – people or groups not satisfied by Alexander’s reforms
Alexander Herzen
Started a movement called populism, resistance to reforms set by Alexander
Made up of students and intellectuals
Went to the peasants with their message
Sought a social revolution through peasantry
Chief radical society > Land and Freedom
Many peasants turned the radicals into the police
Resort to terrorism after the Tsar uses harsh punishments
Land and Freedom split into two groups > one dissolved and the other was the
The People’s Will – terrorist group that assassinated Alexander II

26. Alexander III Autocratic and repressive like Nicholas I
Rolled back his father’s reforms
Strengthened secret police and censorship of the press
He confirms all the evils the revolutionaries feared
His son will find out autocracy will not be able to survive the pressures of the 20th century

27. Great Britain – The Second Reform Act (1867)
Must understand first > Britain seen as your ideal liberal state
1860’s push for the working class to have a vote
Surprisingly the Conservatives in the House of Commons led by Benjamin Disraeli accomplishes this goal
Almost doubles the electorate (1,430,000-2,470,000)
This push is due to Chartist Movement (working class demanding vote & other constitutional reforms
Refresher
Two parts to British Parliament
Lower house > House of Commons (Democratically elected)
Upper house > House of Lords (National Legislature)
By doing this Disraeli thought Conservatives would win more support
He was right > Conservative Party dominates politics in 20th c.
The new prime minister elected however is a liberal
William Gladstone in 1868

28. The Great Ministry of Gladstone 1868-1874
Freedom of religion and class
Competitive exams replace patronage for civil service
Voting by secret ballot
The Education Act of 1870
Established that the government, not the church would run the elementary schools, more schools built
Significance?
Removed abuses without destroying institutions
Reforms a mode of state building > reinforced loyalty while abolishing abuses

29. Disraeli as Prime Minister
Disraeli and Gladstone differed on most issues
Disraeli actually talked a better line that he performed
Public Health Act of 1875 – reaffirmed duty of the state to interfere with private property to protect health and physical well-being
Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 – government becomes actively involved in providing housing for the working class
He also gave protection to trade unions and allowed picket lines

30. The Irish Question
Gladstone, again prime minister in 1880 has to deal with the Irish wanting home rule – Irish control of local government
Disestablished the Church of Ireland (Anglican branch)
Irish Catholics no longer had to pay for the Anglican Church
Compensation provided for Irish tenants who were evicted from their land
Another act > Tenant rights established
Coercion Act passed to restore law and order to Ireland
Irish still wanted a just land settlement
Leader of Irish movement > Charles Stewart Parnell
The Home Rule question fought in Parliament between 1886 and 1914
When the rule was finally passed (1914), it was then suspended due to World War I
Significance
Irish question is going to dramatically affect British politics
British domestic issues could not be solved due to the political divisions the Ireland question created