1. Note that the following lectures include animations and PowerPoint effects such as fly ins and transitions that require you to be in PowerPoint's Slide Show mode (presentation mode).

2. Chapter 15
The Milky Way Galaxy

3. The Milky Way Galaxy

4. Guidepost
You have traced the life story of the stars from their birth in clouds of gas and dust, to their deaths as white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. Now you are ready to see stars in their vast communities called galaxies. This chapter discusses our home galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, and attempts to answer four essential questions:
How do astronomers describe our galaxy?
How did our galaxy form and evolve?
What are spiral arms?
What lies at the very center?

5. Guidepost (continued)
This chapter illustrates how scientists work and think. It will help you answer two questions about science as a study of nature:
How can scientists simplify complex measurements?
How do scientists organize their understanding of natural events?
Answering these questions will prepare you to leave our home galaxy behind and voyage out among the billions of galaxies that fill the depths of the universe.

6. Outline The Nature of the Milky Way Galaxy
The Nature of the Milky Way Galaxy
A. First Studies of the Milky Way Galaxy
B. Discovering the Galaxy
C. The Structure of Our Galaxy
D. The Mass of the Galaxy
II. The Origin of the Milky Way
A. Stellar Populations
B. The Element-Building Process
C. Galactic Fountains
D. The Age of the Milky Way
E. The History of the Milky Way Galaxy

7. Outline (continued) III. Spiral Arms A. Tracing the Spiral Arms
III. Spiral Arms
A. Tracing the Spiral Arms
B. Radio Maps of Spiral Arms
C. The Density Wave Theory
D. Star Formation in Spiral Arms
IV. The Nucleus
A. Observations

8. The Milky Way
Almost everything we see in the night sky belongs to the Milky Way
From the outside, our Milky Way might look very much like our cosmic neighbor, the Andromeda galaxy
We see most of the Milky Way as a faint band of light across the sky

9. First Studies of the Galaxy
First attempt to unveil the structure of our Galaxy by William Herschel (1785), based on optical observations
The shape of the Milky Way was believed to resemble a grindstone, with the sun close to the center

10. The Structure of the Milky Way
Galactic Plane
Galactic Center
The structure is hard to determine because:
1) We are inside
2) Distance measurements are difficult
3) Our view towards the center is obscured by gas and dust

11. The Structure of the Milky Way
Galaxies are the building blocks of the universe!
Milky way is 100,000 ly across
300 billion stars
13 billion years old
Greek (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle")
Spiral arms are made of gas, dust and stars
Nuclear bulge has billions of stars
Disk component (interstellar medium and stars); and a spherical component (bulge and halo)
We live in a barred spiral type galaxy
How do you create a map from the inside?
Galactic Plane
Galactic Center

12. The Structure of the Milky Way
Harlow Shapley (1920’s):
Shapley used cepheids (giant and supergiant stars that pulse). he used their proper motion to get absolute magnitude; period and absolute magnitude to get their distance—he put the center of our galaxy towards Sagittarius
We now use radio, infrared and x rays to get more information to map the milky way
Why can’t we just take a picture of the Milky Way?
Galactic Plane
Galactic Center

13. Strategies to Explore the Structure of Our Milky Way
I. Select bright objects that you can see throughout the Milky Way and trace their directions and distances
II. Observe objects at wavelengths other than visible (to circumvent the problem of optical obscuration), and catalogue their directions and distances
III. Trace the orbital velocities of objects in different directions relative to our position

14. Exploring the Galaxy Using Clusters of Stars
Two types of star clusters:
Open clusters: young clusters of recently formed stars; within the disk of the Galaxy
100-2,000 stars; Pleiades
Open clusters h and c Persei
2) Globular clusters: old, centrally concentrated clusters of stars; mostly in a halo around the Galaxy
Globular Cluster M 19

15. Globular Clusters Dense clusters of 50,000 – 1 million stars
Dense clusters of 50,000 – 1 million stars
Old (~ 11 billion years), lower-main-sequence stars
Approx. 200 globular clusters in our Milky Way
Found in the galaxy halo
Globular Cluster M80

16. Locating the Center of the Milky Way
Distribution of globular clusters is not centered on the sun…
…but on a location which is heavily obscured from direct (visual) observation

17. The Structure of the Milky Way
-Interarm regions?
-Sagittarius A-Black hole
-Galactic equator/ latitude and longitude
-HII Regions ionized gas/nebulae
Disk
Nuclear Bulge
Sun
Halo
Globular Clusters

18. Infrared View of the Milky Way
Near infrared image
Interstellar dust (absorbing optical light) emits mostly infrared
Galactic Plane
Nuclear bulge
Infrared emission is not strongly absorbed and provides a clear view throughout the Milky Way

19. Exploring the Milky Way with Massive Stars and Open Clusters
O and B stars are the most massive, most luminous stars; they light up the disk (unfortunately, also the shortest-lived ones)
=> Look for very young clusters or associations containing O and B stars: O/B Associations=one of the star groupings; bright high mass stars; stars

20. Massive Stars and Open Clusters
Problem: Many stars in the field of the O/B association do not belong to the association (foreground and background stars)
Members of the association have been formed together and move in the same direction
 Identify members through their similar motion on the sky.

21. A View of Galaxies Similar to Our Milky Way
We also see gas and dust absorbing light in other galaxies…
…as dark dust lanes when we see a galaxy edge-on
Sombrero Galaxy
…and as dark clouds in the spiral arms when we see a galaxy face-on
NGC 2997

22. Orbital Motion in the Milky Way (1)
Disk stars:
Nearly circular orbits in the disk of the Galaxy; open clusters;
Using distance and orbital motion helps to calculate mass and origin.
Halo stars:
Highly elliptical orbits; randomly oriented; old, cool, lower main sequence stars; high velocity stars

23. Orbital Motion in the Milky Way (1)
Disk stars:
Population 1 stars: young stars, O/B associations and open clusters, our sun
Halo stars:
Population 2 stars; old stars, globular clusters

24. Orbital Motion in the Milky Way (2)
Differential Rotation
Sun orbits around Galactic center with 220 km/s
1 orbit takes approx. 240 million years
Stars closer to the galactic center orbit faster
Stars farther out orbit more slowly
Our sun is 27,000 ly from center
Galactic rim

25. Finding Mass from Orbital Velocity
The more mass there is inside the orbit, the faster the sun has to orbit around the Galactic center
Combined mass:
M = 1 billion Msun
M = 10 billion Msun
M = 100 billion Msun

26. The Mass of the Milky Way
If all mass were concentrated in the center, the rotation curve would follow a modified version of Kepler’s 3rd law
rotation curve = orbital velocity as function of radius

27. The Mass of the Milky Way (2)
Total mass in the disk of the Milky Way:
Approx. 200 billion solar masses
Additional mass in an extended halo (galactic corona):
Total: Approx. 1 trillion solar masses
Most of the mass is not emitting any radiation:
Dark Matter!

28. => Young stars contain more metals than older stars
Metals in Stars
Absorption lines almost exclusively from hydrogen: Population II
Many absorption lines also from heavier elements (metals): Population I
At the time of formation, the gases forming the Milky Way consisted exclusively of hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements (“metals”) were later only produced in stars.
=> Young stars contain more metals than older stars

29. Population I: Young stars: metal rich; located in spiral arms and disk
Stellar Populations
Population I: Young stars: metal rich; located in spiral arms and disk
Population II: Old stars: metal poor; located in the halo (globular clusters) and nuclear bulge

30. The Abundance of Elements in the Universe (nucleosynthesis)
All elements heavier than He are very rare.
Logarithmic Scale
Linear Scale

31. Galactic Fountains
Multiple supernovae in regions of recent star formation produce bubbles of very hot gas
This hot gas can break out of the galactic disk and produce a galactic fountain
As the gas cools, it falls back to the disk, spreading heavy elements throughout the galaxy
Supernova can form AU, AG and Pt-found in younger stars and distributed throughout the galaxy

32. History of the Milky Way
The traditional theory:
Quasi-spherical gas cloud fragments into smaller pieces, forming the first, metal-poor stars (pop. II);
Rotating cloud collapses into a disk-like structure
Later populations of stars (pop. I) are restricted to the disk of the Galaxy

33. Changes to the Traditional Theory
Ages of stellar populations may pose a problem to the traditional theory of the history of the Milky Way
Possible solution: Later accumulation of gas, possibly due to mergers with smaller galaxies
Recently discovered ring of stars around the Milky Way may be the remnant of such a merger
Galaxies pulled apart!

34. O and B Associations trace out 3 spiral arms near the Sun
O and B Associations (O/B associations)
Perseus arm
Orion-Cygnus arm
Sun
Sagittarius arm
O and B Associations trace out 3 spiral arms near the Sun
Distances to O and B associations determined using Cepheid variables

35. Radio View of the Milky Way
Interstellar dust does not absorb radio waves
We can observe any direction throughout the Milky Way at radio waves
Radio map at a wavelength of 21 cm, tracing neutral hydrogen

36. Radio Observations (2)
21-cm radio observations reveal the distribution of neutral hydrogen throughout the galaxy
Distances to hydrogen clouds determined through radial-velocity measurements (Doppler effect!)
Sun
Galactic Center
Neutral hydrogen concentrated in spiral arms

37. Tracing Molecular Clouds
Radio emission of the CO molecule can be used to trace the distribution of molecular clouds
In some directions, many molecular clouds overlap
Clouds can be disentangled using velocity information
Molecular Clouds are concentrated along spiral arms

38. Structure of the Milky Way Revealed
Distribution of dust
Sun
Distribution of stars and neutral hydrogen
Bar
Ring

39. Star Formation in Spiral Arms
Shock waves from supernovae, ionization fronts initiated by O and B stars, and the shock fronts forming spiral arms trigger star formation
Spiral arms are stationary shock waves, initiating star formation

40. Star Formation in Spiral Arms (2)
Spiral arms are basically stationary shock waves
Stars and gas clouds orbit around the Galactic center and cross spiral arms
Shocks initiate star formation
Star formation self-sustaining through O and B ionization fronts and supernova shock waves

41. The Nature of Spiral Arms
Spiral arms appear bright (newly formed, massive stars!) against the dark sky background…
but dark (gas and dust in dense, star-forming clouds) against the bright background of the large galaxy
Chance coincidence of small spiral galaxy in front of a large background galaxy

42. Grand-Design Spiral Galaxies
Flocculent (woolly) galaxies also have spiral patterns, but no dominant pair of spiral arms
Grand-Design Spirals have two dominant spiral arms
NGC 300
M 100

43. Self-Sustained Star Formation in Spiral Arms
Star forming regions get elongated due to differential rotation
Star formation is self-sustaining due to ionization fronts and supernova shocks

44. The Whirlpool Galaxy Grand-design galaxy M 51 (Whirlpool Galaxy)
Grand-design galaxy M 51 (Whirlpool Galaxy)
Self-sustaining star forming regions along spiral arm patterns are clearly visible

45. Extinction by 30 magnitudes
The Galactic Center (1)
Our view (in visible light) towards the galactic center (GC) is heavily obscured by gas and dust
Extinction by 30 magnitudes
 Only 1 out of 1012 optical photons makes its way from the GC towards Earth!
Galactic center
Wide-angle optical view of the GC region

46. Radio View of the Galactic Center
Many supernova remnants; shells and filaments
Arc
Sgr A
Sgr A
Sgr A*: The center of our galaxy
The galactic center contains a supermassive black hole of approx. 2.6 million solar masses

47. A Black Hole at the Center of Our Galaxy
By following the orbits of individual stars near the center of the Milky Way, the mass of the central black hole could be determined to ~ 2.6 million solar masses

48. X-ray View of the Galactic Center
Galactic center region contains many black-hole and neutron-star X-ray binaries
Supermassive black hole in the galactic center is unusually faint in X-rays, compared to those in other galaxies
Chandra X-ray image of Sgr A*