1. Defensive Adaptations goal: don’t get eaten!
Plants
Grow thorns, spines, or rough leaves
Produce secondary compounds that are bad-tasting, toxic or both
Example: milkweeds produce cardiac glycosides that make herbivores sick if consumed.
Primary compounds are those that ALL plants produce, which are carbs, lipids, DNA, etc.

2. Defensive Adaptations goal: don’t get eaten!
Animals
Also produce secondary compounds
Hot quinones are sprayed on attackers by some beetles
Bad smell in skunks

3. Defensive Adaptations goal: don’t get eaten!
Animals
Aposematic coloration: “warning coloration”
A bright, easily remembered pattern lets your predators know you are dangerous so they won’t eat you!
Ladybird beetles are bad, tasting so they’re red

4. Defensive Adaptations goal: don’t get eaten!
Animals
Coral snakes are poisonous so they’re banded with red, yellow, & black
Poisonous butterflies (Monarch butterfly) have bright “warning” colors

5. Defensive Adaptations goal: don’t get eaten!
Animals
In general for animals, bright color = bad taste
Works best on predators that can learn
a toad that gets stung once by a bumblebee  won’t touch anything that resembles the bee for a long time
If a jaybird eats a monarch, he vomits, then learns NOT to eat anything with the same color pattern

6. Defensive Adaptations goal: don’t get eaten!
What are good “learning” predators…
Ones that have a developed nervous system
Developed nervous system = memory system
Memory system allows organism to learn

7. Defensive Adaptations: Mimicry imitation for protection
Batesian mimicry: one poisonous, one isn’t
After a bird eats one monarch and gets sick, he will also avoid viceroys (even if they’re not poisonous) 
non-poisonous imitator gains protection
Top=monarch, bottom=viceroy (identified by black line running across the hind wings.

8. Defensive Adaptations: Mimicry imitation for protection
Batesian mimicry: one poisonous, one isn’t
Red and yellow kill a fellow, red and black venoms lack
Coral Snake
Scarlet King Snake
"Red on yellow, kill a fellow "Red on black, friend of Jack“
"Red into black, venom lack; red into yellow, kill a fellow."

9. Defensive Adaptations: Mimicry imitation for protection
Mullerian mimicry: both poisonous
Reduces the total number of organisms that must be killed to “educate” the predator
3 or more species of toxic prey is better  mimicry ring
Many poisonous butterflies of Heliconius look alike

10. Defensive Adaptations: Camouflage hiding from predators
Opposite of aposematic coloration; makes organisms hard to see
Disruptive coloration: breaks up the outline of an organism so it makes it hard to recognize

12. Offensive Adaptations goal: EAT so you can survive another day!
How to get a meal
Sit-and-wait predator: wait until the food comes to you
Active searcher: go out and look for food
Parasite: sit on your food all the time

13. Offensive Adaptations goal: EAT so you can survive another day!
Sit-and-wait predator: wait until the food comes to you
Camouflage and mimicry are common tactics
The organism using these techniques do not get seen by potential predators AND
Potential prey cannot see their predator
Lunch!

14. Yellow Crab Spider captures small bee
Birds can’t see it, and neither can the flies in which the spider feeds.

15. Competition
Intraspecific competition: competition within the same species for the same resource (food/water, shelter/territory, mate, etc.)

16. Competition
Intraspecific competition: competition within the same species for the same resource (food/water, shelter/territory, mate, etc.)
Prevention: males & females
may eat different foods OR
the adult & young will eat
different foods

17. Competition
Interspecific competition: competition between different species for the same resource (food/water, shelter/territory, etc)
May lead to extinction of one species by competitive exclusion
By competing one gets forced out of their niche
Niche
Fundamental: like having your own room
Realized: someone moving into your room

19. Organisms try to minimize competition
Organisms try to minimize competition. Some kind of sharing or division of resources is better than fighting.
When species live in close proximity to another or share the same resources they may form symbiotic relationships with one another
We say that they live in niches (living conditions that are perfect for just those species)

20. Symbiosis
When 2 or more species are in a close, long-term relationship
3 kinds:
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism

21. Mutualism (+/+) Both species benefit; win-win situation
Example: oxpeckers feed on the ticks found on rhinos

22. Commensalism (+/0)
One species benefits, the other doesn’t gain or lose anything from the relationship
Example: remora fish and shark

23. Parasitism (+/-) One benefits, the other loses
Example: Cat and tapeworm
Types
Ectoparasites: live outside the host like fleas & ticks
Endoparasites: live within the host like viruses, bacteria, protozoans, etc.

24. Species can shape each other over time.
Two or more species can evolve together through coevolution.
evolutionary paths become connected
species evolve in response to changes in each other

25. Coevolution can occur in beneficial relationships.

26. Coevolution can occur in competitive relationships, sometimes called evolutionary arms race.

28. How these organisms interact (symbiosis, predator-prey, competition, etc.) can affect how the population evolves.
Natural selection can change the distribution of traits within a population

29. Natural selection acts on distributions of traits.
A normal distribution graphs as a bell-shaped curve.
highest frequency near mean value
frequencies decrease toward each extreme value
Traits not undergoing natural selection have a normal distribution.

30. Natural selection can change the distribution of a trait in one of three ways.
Microevolution is evolution within a population.
observable change in the allele frequencies
can result from natural selection

31. Natural selection can take one of three paths.
Directional selection favors phenotypes at one extreme.

32. Stabilizing selection favors the intermediate phenotype.

33. Disruptive selection favors both extreme phenotypes.
Suppose there is a population of rabbits. The color of the rabbits is governed by two incompletely dominant traits: black fur represented by “B” and white fur represented by “b”. A rabbit with the genotype of “BB” would have a phenotype of black fur, a genotype of “Bb” would have gray fur (a display of both black and white) and a genotype of “bb” would have a phenotype of white fur.
If this population of rabbits were put into an area that had very dark black rocks as well as very white colored stone, the rabbits with black fur would be able to hide from predators amongst the black rocks and the white furred rabbits would be able to hide in the white rocks, but the gray furred rabbits would stand out in both of the habitats and thus would not survive. Disruptive Selection is believed to be the driving force behind sympatric speciation.