1. Police history

2. Early British policing
Shire-reeves supervised rural military, police and tax collection
Constables had similar duties in urban areas
Rotating, unpaid position; well-off paid others to serve
Justices of the Peace carried out local judicial functions
Issued warrants to be served by Constables and set bail
Criticized for being corrupt
Social change brought on by urbanization and the Industrial Revolution greatly increased crime but there was opposition to a professional police
Harsh sanctions for those caught (223 crimes carried the death penalty)
In late 1700’s the Fielding brothers, London magistrates, established the “Bow Street Runners” to fight widespread thievery and prostitution
Volunteers, paid rewards by victims
In the early 1800’s Colquhoun refined the Fielding’s approach
Recommended a paid, professional police force
Concept: Police were to be role models for British society
11 mis.

3. “Bobbies” (officially: Constables)
London, 1829: First professional, paid police force
London divided into 17 precincts, each with a boss, 4 inspectors, 16 sergeants and 165 constables
Constables wore a uniform and carried a truncheon
Rules of the founder, Sir Robert Peel included:
Military organization and Government control
Hiring officers on a probationary basis
Careful selection and training
Good appearance, moderate temper
Keeping records of crime and deploying accordingly
Bobbies faced hostility and organized opposition
Public support increased as officer behavior improved
Concern that poor quality policing could make disorder worse

4. Early American Policing
Political framework
Republicanism – govt. accountable to all, not just the privileged
Preference for local control, power flows up, not just down
Sheriff and constable/watchman models imported from England
Like in England, the “better” (affluent) citizens resisted service, hired others who proved unreliable
Move to full-time, organized police forces began in mid-late 1700’s
Economic depression, urbanization and industrialization greatly increased urban crime and unrest, leading to crime waves and forcing governments to act
1751: Philadelphia organizes first paid police force
January 8, 1828: Watchman Steve Heimer is first PPD officer killed on duty
Major issues: Should police wear uniforms? Carry arms? Use force?

5. Death of Mary Rogers led to establishing the NYPD
July 1841, New York City: Mary Rogers, an employee of a cigar store, disappears. Her body is found floating in a river. Her death was unsolved but is attributed to a botched abortion.
In 1844 her death spurred the establishment of a paid, full-time police force in New York City
Patronage positions – selections made by Aldermen in each Ward
Chief without real authority over officers
Decade before officers uniformed; only ID was a copper badge (“coppers”)
Major departure from British model: officers carried side arms because criminals were often armed
3 mis.

6. Emerging issues Patronage for selection and advancement
Chiefs had little authority
Political corruption infused decisions
Training mostly on the job “war stories”
Local control: heavily decentralized, autonomous precincts
Rampant police corruption
Chiefs and precinct commanders took bribes, allowed vice and prostitution
Officers did the same with peddlers and thieves
Police heavily involved in strikebreaking
But - police also had community roles – officers worked soup lines, helped immigrants
But - closeness between police and public was a double-edge sword, promoting corruption, interfering with supervision

7. Response: “Professionalization”
During the “Progressives” tried to reform the police & remove it from political control
Centralized command
Better quality officers
Narrower mission
Civil service
Sought to distance officers from citizens to reduce corruption
Police became more concerned with law enforcement rather than just “peacekeeping”
Scientific administration (Taylor’s management principles)
Develop standard procedures: “routinize” police work
Reduce discretion where possible
Task specialization: special assignments and units
Measure output: quantifiable results (arrests and crime rate)

8. August Vollmer: a leader of reform
August Vollmer was major figure in improving law enforcement throughout the U.S. during the early 1900s
Became chief in Berkeley
Established bicycle, then motorized patrol
Formal records system
Scientific investigation
1920: lie detector
1924: fingerprint system
Modus Operandi system (track criminals by their methods)
Formal police training
1916: Established Berkeley School of Criminology
Applicant psychological and aptitude testing
Recruit college graduates
Against the tide: encouraged police to do social work
1 min.

9. 1929-31 – Wickersham Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement
Mandate to review enforcement of Prohibition
Published broad report (authored by Vollmer) about status of U.S. policing
Society beset by crime, gang wars
Policing suffers from abuses, excessive force (“third degree”) and corruption
Recommendations
Get politics out of law enforcement
Select Chiefs and officers on merit
Physical standards
Improve salaries and working conditions
Good training
Professionalize, specialize
Hire females
Establish crime prevention and crime investigation bureaus

10. The Professional Model: William H. Parker’s LAPD
Hired as a patrol officer in 1927
1930’s L.A., under the regime of Mayor Frank L. Shaw, was beset by municipal corruption
Shaw was recalled in 1938
Parker became Chief in 1950, remade the Department using the “professional model”
Dismissed many abusive and incompetent officers
Implemented modern organizational principles
Imposed a rigorous civil-service driven officer selection process
Greatly improved training
Instilled discipline and esprit de corps
BUT - accused of insensitivity to minorities

11. Urban disorder of the 1960’s – 1970’s
Urban unrest led many to question the assumptions of the professional model
Watts riot of August 1965 (to be covered in great depth later)
A series of Government studies suggested that poor police practices contributed to disorder
Recommended changes
More minority officers
Higher educational standards
Enhance officer training
Improve oversight and discipline
Focus on community relations

12. Evolution of policing: professional model to COMPSTAT and (way) beyond
Criticism of the professional model
Police agencies are isolated and unresponsive
Police have overlooked other obligations
Officers have become detached from citizens
Officers stereotype citizens and over-rely on force
To-do list
Narrow the distance between police and the public
Defuse tensions in inner cities; build trust
Share information and learn more about local problems
1970’s – Team policing: Officers as generalists, provide all services in a fixed area
1980’s – Community policing: give citizens a role in police decisions
Neighborhood police stations, foot and bicycle patrols
COPS – combine community-oriented and problem-solving policing
1990’s to present – COMPSTAT, hot-spots policing, etc.
COMPSTAT: Use detailed incident data to identify crime “hot spots,” allocate resources and evaluate progress (more on this later)
5 mis.