1. Forensic Anthropology
Chapter 13

2. Anthropology
Scientific study of all aspects of human development and interaction
Tools, language, traditions, social interactions, how we relate to societies
Physical anthropology: studies these identifying characteristics on the remains of an individual
Can be used to determine the sex, race, height, and physical health of a victim from his or her remains

3. Forensic Anthropologist
Determines identity of the deceased
Works with Forensic Pathologists and Forensic Odontologists to determine cause and manner of death and estimate PMI (postmortem interval)
Compares skeletal traits to antemortem (before death) traits, if available

4. Duties of Forensic Anthropologist
Identify skeletal remains
Collect skeletal remains
Assist at mass disasters
Facial reconstruction of deceased individuals
Use technology to superimpose faces on skulls
Assist in identification of live individuals by facial/body recognition and analysis of gait

5. History of Forensic Anthropology
1800s – scientists began to use skull measurements to differentiate among individuals
1932 – first FBI crime lab, partnered with Smithsonian Institution for identification of human remains
1939 – William Krogman published the Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material
WWII soldier remains identified using anthropologic techniques
New techniques in DNA found in the mitochondria of cells of bones has been used in identification

6. Characteristics of Bone
Originate from osteoblasts
Begin as soft cartilage in fetal development
Osteoblasts migrate to the center of cartilage production and deposit minerals (calcium phosphate) for ossification (formation of bone) during fetal development
Outline of skeleton formed by 8th week of pregnancy
Bone is surrounded by a protective tissue called periosteum – keeps bones moist and aides in repair of injuries
Bone is constantly deposited, broken down, and replaced
When bone is broken, blood vessels at the area have the ability to increase calcium phosphate deposition to help heal the break

7. Characteristics of Bone
Osteocytes: newly trapped osteoblasts that form the new bone framework
No longer produce new bone
Osteoclasts: specialized to dissolve bone (secrete enzymes)
Help in reshaping bone
Aid in maintaining homeostasis within the body (calcium levels)
Remove cellular wastes and debris from the bones
How many bones in the human body?
206, as an adult! Any guesses for a baby?
450!

8. Joints Location where bones meet (articulate)
Three kinds of connective tissue:
Cartilage – wraps ends of bones for protection, prevents friction between bones
Ligaments - connect two or more bones
Tendons - muscle to bone

9. Aging of Bones Children build bones faster than bones deteriorate
After 30 years, bones deteriorate faster than they are built
Can be slowed with exercise
Osteoporosis – bones lose calcium and break easily due to being porous
Vertebral collapse
# of bones and their condition can tell an investigator about a peron’s age, health, and whether they had enough calcium

10. Typical Human Skeleton
Cranium
Mandible
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Femur
Tibia
Fibula
Clavicle
Sternum
Vertebra
Pelvis
Human Skeleton with some bones identified
Courtesy Norman Sauer
Kathy Mirakovits, FSEC

11. Skeletal Identification
Every Human Skeleton is Unique
Genetics—stature, race and gender
Growth—rate of growth differs in individuals
Use/Age of Skeleton—wear and tear due to occupation and/or aging
Injury or trauma—fractures or surgical scars
Bones of a Child

12. Skeletal Identification
Forensic examination of remains begins by answering these questions:
1. Is material bone?
2. If it is bone; is it human?
3. Does the age of the bone make it useful for forensic purposes?

13. Osteobiography
Begins with identification of class characteristics, which allows sub-grouping of remains
Class Characteristics
Age
Gender
Race
Stature
Individual characteristics such as injury to a bone or unique dental work may also be identified
X-rays during autopsy shows previous fractures, artificial joints, pins – help link to identity

14. Differentiating Gender
Males
Thicker, rougher, appears bumpy (robust)
Skull:
Frontal bone low and sloping
Eye orbits square
Lower jaw more square, angled at about 90 degrees
Squarer chins
Occipital protuberance
Females
Smoother and less knobby (gracile)
Skull:
Frontal bone higher and more rounded
Eye orbits more circular
Lower jaw is sloped with an angle greater than 90 degrees
Chin rounder and more V-shaped
No occipital protuberance

15. Skull Gender Traits—Male Traits
Sloping forehead
prominent brows
external occipital protuberance
large mastoid process
Photo courtesy, Norman Sauer
Kathy Mirakovits, FSEC

16. Male vs. Female Skull

17. Differentiating Gender
Region
Bone
Male
Female
Pelvic
Subpubic angle
50-82 degrees
90 degrees
Shape of pubis
Triangular pubis
Rectangular pubis
Shape of pelvic cavity
Heart-shaped
Oval-shaped
Sacral
Sacrum
Longer, narrower, curved inward
Shorter, broader, curved outward
Femur
Femur (thigh bone)
Straighter angle in relation to pelvis
Greater angle in relation to pelvis

18. Sub-Pubic Angle in Pelvis
Female sub pubic angle
-generally much wider than in males at approximately 90 degrees
Male sub pubic angle
-smaller width pelvis gives an angle between ~55-80 degrees
Kathy Mirakovits, FSEC
Photos courtesy Norman Sauer.

19. Greater Sciatic Notch in Pelvis
Male
Greater Sciatic Notch
Females have a wider sciatic notch (>60 degrees)
Female
Kathy Mirakovits, FSEC

20. Distinguishing Age Look for presence or absence of cartilage
Suture marks
Joints of skull
Immature skull: fontanels
Sutures gradually disappear – smoother appearance with age

21. Distinguishing Age Cartilaginous lines Long bones
450 bones  206 bones through life
Epiphysis – cartilaginous line while bones are growing
No longer visible after cartilage is fully replaced (happens earlier in females than males)
Age for completion of each bone varies – helps to approximate age from bones
Once growth ceases, only repairs and reactions to aging appear
Long bones
Head of bone fused to shaft indicates age
Fusion occurs at different times with different bones
Estimate of age may be determined by assessing formation of teeth and eruption through gums
Adult Femur (left)
Child Femur (right)

22. Distinguishing Age with Long Bones

23. Determining Age: Pubic & Rib Bones
Macroscopic examination of interior edge of pubic symphysis allows for determining age at death—the smoother the surface, the older the bone
Pubic Symphysis
Female Pelvis
Left: Younger Bone
Right: Older Bone

24. Determining Age: Pubic & Rib Bones
Sternal ends of ribs change as person gets older: increased pitting and presence of projections, and changes in type and quality of bone

25. Estimating Height Measurements of long bones
Arm: humerus, radius, ulna
Leg: femur, tibia, fibula
Databases using mathematical relationships
Varies depending on race and bones used
More accurate if race and sex are known

26. Estimating Height Example
A femur measuring 49 cm belonging to an African American male is found. Use the formula to estimate his height
(cm inches = cm/2.54)
Height (cm)
= 2.10 (femur) cm (+/- 3.91)
= 2.10 (49 cm) cm
=102.9 cm cm = cm
Get range:
= cm = cm = 67.4 inches = 5 ft 7.2 in
= =
or 70.5 inches (5 ft 10.4 inches)
5 ft 7.2 in – 5 ft 10.4 in

27. Distinguishing Race
More difficult as interracial marriages have caused blending of physical traits
Skeleton does not contain many obvious characteristics that define racial characteristics
Best indicated by bones of skull
Shape of eye sockets
Absence or presence of a nasal spine
Measurements of the nasal index (ratio of the width of the nasal opening to the height of the opening, multiplied by 100)
Prognathism (projection of the maxilla beyond the mandible)
Width of face
Angulation of the jaw and face

28. Determination of Race Example Skulls
Caucasian Skull
Rounded eye orbits
Prominent nasal spine
African-American Skull
Rectangular eye orbits
Very small nasal spine
Determination of Race Example Skulls
Nasal Index
ratio of nasal width to height
African American >0.53
Caucasian <0.48
Kathy Mirakovits, FSEC

29. Distinguishing Race

30. Other Clues Right-handed vs. left-handed
Diet and nutritional information (i.e. lack of Vitamin D or calcium)
Diseases and genetic disorders (i.e. osteoporosis, arthritis, scoliosis, osteogenesis imperfecta)
Type of work or sports based on bone structure
Surgical implants (artificial joints, which have code numbers, and pins)
Childbirth

31. DNA Evidence
DNA profiling typically uses nuclear DNA (in nucleus of white blood cells and other body tissues)
Bones contain little nuclear DNA due to degradation, but do contain mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondria contain DNA inherited from mother (no genetic information from father in mitochondria)
Can be extracted from bone and profiled
Compared with living relatives on the mother’s side of the family to determine identity

32. Skeletal Trauma Analysis
attempts to make distinctions between the patterns caused by weapons and the damage and wear caused by the environment or animals after death
Attempt to determine weapon that caused death
Sharp-force and blunt-force trauma, gunshots, and knife wounds all have distinctive shatter patterns
Blunt objects have more cracks radiating from the site of impact – as well as causing more damage to the surface of the bone
Gunshot Wound – Dr. Bass
Bone breaks: strength of bone decreases as it ages and dries out, while living bone is more flexible and breaks in different ways
Living bones shatter in a spiral pattern parallel to the length, old bones often break perpendicular to the length

33. Cases
Steven Avery
Death’s Acre

34. Reading a Vernier Caliper(p.3)12 .5
Use the INSIDE of the jaws to take an OUTSIDE measurement & read the OUTSIDE SCALE.
Use the OUTSIDE of the jaws to take an INSIDE measurement & read the INSIDE SCALE.
Kathy Mirakovits, FSEC

35. Using The Ward’s Metric Caliper
Measure the outside diameter
~57.9 mm
Measure the inside diameter
~42.1 mm
Kathy Mirakovits, FSEC