Chapter 6 Social Structure and Crime

Chapter 6 Social Structure and Crime
Lee Ayers-Schlosser, Southern Oregon University

Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)
Understand the meaning of “structural” explanation of crime. Recognize the contributions of Emile Durkheim and how his work connects to modern criminological theory. Know the central themes captured by the Chicago School and social disorganization theory.

Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)
Understand the anomie/strain tradition, including the work of Robert K. Merton and subsequent revisions of his theory. Grasp the different subcultural explanations of delinquency and connect them to broader theoretical traditions. Connect the theories within this chapter to their respective policy implications.

You Are the Criminologist (1 of 2)
The Demolition of Cabrini-Green Housing development Urban Revitalization Demonstration Program Demolishing the severely decayed housing projects Designing mixed-use, mixed-income projects Primary goal: lessen the concentration of poverty within small geographical areas

You Are the Criminologist (2 of 2)
The demolition of Cabrini-Green housing projects Is the demolition of inner-city high-rise housing projects a good idea? Will it reduce crime? What problems might a “mixed” (subsidized with owned) housing area create?

Introduction (1 of 2) What role does society play in promoting or impeding criminal behavior? What social factors lead individuals to commit crime? What features of society relate to the crime rates of particular geographical areas?

Introduction (2 of 2) Early history of criminology—cause of crime within individuals Shift from individual to social responsibility for criminal behavior Biological and psychological approaches still part of modern criminology New premise—criminality rooted in the structure of society itself

Influence of Emile Durkheim (1 of 6)
Father of French sociology Studied the relationship between social structure and social problems Foundation for most current sociological theories of crime Defined crime as behavior that shocks the sentiments and healthy conscience of civilized society

Regarded crime as a natural part of society Crime serves several functions Criminals are agents for social change. Crime calls attention to social ills. Crime identifies those who violate social norms.

Two types of criminals Altruistic criminal Offended by the rules of society Wants to change those rules for the better Common criminal Rejects all laws and discipline Purposely violates the law

Key ideas Humans inherently selfish and greedy Focus on social integration of members of society Norms and values as a society’s “collective conscience” Strong norms and values essential to a stable society Anomie—norms and values of society weaken and are no longer able to control behaviors

Social change Mechanical solidarity Homogeneity Laws seek to enforce uniformity High levels of social integration Strong group norms Organic solidarity (industrial societies) Specialization Low social integration Weakening of norms

Social change When monetary wealth is the goal (instead of self-sufficiency), human tendencies toward insatiable desires are enhanced. Norms weaken in a society that places an emphasis on industrial prosperity.

Social Ecology The study of how human relationships are affected by a particular environment.

Social Ecology 1. Concentric zone theory
2. Social disorganization theory 3. Race, place, and poverty—the underclass 4. Stark’s deviant places theory 5. Hot spots of criminal behavior 6. Policy implications of social ecology

Concentric Zone Theory (1 of 3)
Robert E. Park City as crime laboratory Ernest Burgess Cities grow in a systematic way (concentric zones) Concentric zones structure city according to these types of characteristics: Residential Occupational Class

Zone in transition major concern Patterns of growth create social disorganization Weakening of social ties cause social problems Disease Infant death Delinquency

Social Disorganization Theory (1 of 8)
Chicago School Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay Macro (neighborhood) level theory Confirmed that crime is highest in the zone in transition Transitional population Fewer neighbors know and trust each other Less neighborly intervention

Stable, high crime rates in areas with: Population homogeneity High poverty rates High population mobility Physical decay These features impede social organization and collective efficacy (cohesion and informal control) of delinquency.

Once crime is prevalent, delinquent norms and values are culturally transmitted and compete with normative values.

Criticism Ethnocentric Relied on official arrest statistics, which could reflect police practices more than actual delinquency levels No empirical support

Modern revival Focus on informal social controls

British Crime Survey Ecological characteristics of British neighborhoods (family disruption, poverty, residential mobility) influence Informal social control (supervision of street-corner youth) Neighborhood cohesion (friendship networks, membership in community organizations) Measures of social control and cohesion predicted crime victimization

Policy implications Target for changing those ecological factors that relate to collective efficacy Promote neighborhood cohesion and informal social controls

Race, Place, and Poverty: The Underclass
Inner-city residents less able to accumulate wealth and move to desirable areas Vicious cycle of poverty and crime Racial minorities affected most

Concentrated Disadvantage (1 of 4)
William Julius Wilson Social forces Racism Residential segregation Loss of manufacturing jobs Failure of civil rights policies

Incarceration rate Interferes with social organization Fosters joblessness Reduces marriage prospects Reduces youth supervision

Implications Locations inhibit social controls (underclass live in criminogenic neighborhoods) Isolation from mainstream society and existence in high-crime areas influences cognitive landscape of youth

Conclusions Moral poverty is the primary cause of crime. Social structure and public policy shape the context of moral values. Structural forces outside of a person’s control shape available choices.

Stark’s Deviant Places Theory (1 of 3)
Developed by Rodney Stark Combines social disorganization with routine activities approach Q: How can neighborhoods remain the site of high-crime rates despite a complete turnover in their population? A: Something unique about certain places that sustain crime

Variables that affect the crime rate Density Poverty Mixed use Transience Dilapidation

Additional variables Moral cynicism among residents Increased opportunities for crime and deviance Increased motivation to deviate Diminished mechanisms of social control

Hot Spots of Criminal Behavior
Developed by Lawrence Sherman, William Spelman, Barbara Warner, and Glenn Pierce Some neighborhoods more prone to crime than others Ecological variables related to crime Poverty Racial heterogeneity Family disruption Structural density

Social Ecology Policy Implications (1 of 5)
Target Ecological factors Social cohesion Informal social controls

Chicago Area Projects (CAP) Mobilize local informal social organization and social control—creating “community committees” Overcome influence of delinquent peers and criminal adults Assign detached local adults to neighborhood gangs Recreational programs designed to provide youth with associations with conventional peers and adults Improve sanitation, traffic control, and physical decay Produced mixed results

Neighborhood watch programs Only successfully implemented in neighborhoods that are cohesive Moving to Opportunity program Moving everyone out of poverty-stricken neighborhoods not realistic Urban-renewal projects Poor residents pushed out into adjacent areas

Implications for criminal justice system Community policing Active role working with neighborhood residents to identify and solve community problems Reduces fear of crime Little evidence of reduction in criminal behavior Incarceration High levels of incarceration within a neighborhood might contribute to social disorganization Potentially increases crime

Weed-and-seed strategy Federal initiative Target chronic violent offenders for incapacitation Bring human services to the area Promote economic and physical revitalization Produced mixed findings

Anomie/Strain Theoretical Tradition
1. Anomie/strain theory 2. General strain theory 3. Institutional anomie theory

Anomie/Strain Theory Robert Merton
Most people recognize culturally approved goals and means to achieve them. Pressure to succeed and lack of means to do so causes strain (anomie). Crime results when individuals are unable to achieve their goals through legitimate means.

Anomie/Strain Theory (1 of 6)
Adaptations to anomie 1. Innovation 2. Ritualism 3. Retreatism 4. Rebellion 5. Conformity

1. Innovation Accepts culturally approved goals Pursues goals through unacceptable means Mostly likely to lead to criminal behavior 2. Ritualism Abandons goals of financial success Plays it safe Seeks to make it through each day

3. Retreatism Social dropout Will not resort to illegitimate means Withdraws from society 4. Rebellion Opposes cultural goals and means Seeks to establish new social order Embraces different cultural goals Hippies, terrorists, street gangs

5. Conformity No gap between cultural goal and means Normative behavior

Criticism Utilitarian Narrow scope Monetary, lower-class crimes Fails to explain why people react to strain differently Lack of empirical support Adolescent aspirations not linked with strain Poverty and unemployment do not fluctuate with crime rates in a meaningful or consistent way

Policy implications Reduce poverty Increase legitimate (educational and economic) opportunities for the lower classes Delinquency Prevention and Crime Act of 1961 President Lyndon B. Johnson’s “War on Poverty”

General Strain Theory (1 of 4)
Robert Agnew Focuses more on psychological stress than broad social structure and cultural goals Sources of strain Failure to achieve a goal Removal of positively valued stimuli Presence of a noxious stimulus

Strain produces negative emotional states (anger, depression). Without adequate coping skills, these emotional states are conducive to delinquency. Individuals lacking coping skills are more likely to have a delinquent response.

Policy implications Focus on the ability to cope with strain Anger management Conflict resolution skills Cognitive-behavioral rehabilitation programs

Institutional Anomie Theory (1 of 6)
Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld Macro (society) level theory Predicts high-crime rates based on culture and social structure Distinctive pattern of crime in United States due to the American dream

American dream values Achievement Individualism Universalism Materialism

Social structure revolves around social institutions Family Economy Education Government Institutions form a balance of power

In United States, the economy is central; other institutions are weak. Focus on economic success weakens norms guiding how a person attains wealth. High-crime rates result when institutions responsible for socializing children (school, family) are weakened.

Policy implications Push the culture of society away from a focus on money and toward the recognition that other roles are important Increase the strength of socializing institutions (e.g., family, community)

Subcultural Theory (1 of 2)
Focuses solely on lower classes Attempt to explain the formation and activity of delinquent subcultures Subculture defined as a group (such as a street gang) that holds different norms and values than mainstream society

Subcultural Theory (2 of 2)
1. Status frustration 2. Differential opportunity theory 3. Focal concerns of the lower class

Status Frustration (1 of 4)
Albert Cohen Delinquency is largely a lower‑class phenomenon. Strain (caused by inability to reach the middle class) produces delinquency. The delinquent experiences status frustration and a loss of self‑esteem.

Turning point occurs when boys reach school age 1950s school systems entrenched in middle-class values and social networks Lower-class boys singled out by their dress, manners, and attitudes Middle-class measuring rod

Delinquent ridicules mainstream values and develops a subculture that recognizes and rewards delinquent values, including: Aggression Toughness Hedonism Immediate gratification Loyalty Conformity

Policy implications Generally unclear Aids for lower-class youth (e.g., Head Start)

Differential Opportunity Theory (1 of 6)
Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin Delinquents predisposed to conspicuous consumption Lack of legitimate opportunities for success causes strain Blocked economic aspirations leads to poor self‑image Frustration leads to delinquency

Forms of delinquent subcultures Criminal subculture Delinquents seek economic gain, view crime as a career Conflict subculture High premium on violence Retreatist subculture Emphasizes drug abuse or other forms of escape

Access to illegitimate means of success are not equally available. Criminal gangs: illegitimate opportunities present Conflict gangs: no criminal structure

Hagedorn: types of adult gang members Legit—matured out of the gang Homeboys—alternately work conventional jobs and drug sales Dope fiends—addicted to cocaine, in business to maintain access to the drug New jacks—drug game as their career

Solution to gangs Steady employment Supportive relationships Low threat of incarceration

Policy implications Provide legitimate opportunities for success to members of the lower class Job programs Community control of social institutions Example: mobilization for youth program

Focal Concerns of the Lower Class (1 of 6)
Walter Miller Views entire lower class as subculture Focal concerns (values) foster delinquency. Lower‑class youth respond to these values and develop a subculture of delinquency.

Trouble Violent situations, interactions with the police Toughness Need to demonstrate that one can stand up to adversity Smartness Street smarts Excitement Thrill of engaging in conflict Fate What happens in life is beyond one’s control Autonomy Intolerance of challenges to one’s personal sphere

Predominance of female-based households contributes to this problem. Lower-class adolescents often go out on the streets to learn appropriate adult male behavior.

Criticism Failure to put the focal concerns in context Many middle-class youth share these values

Work of Elijah Anderson Lower-class youth guided by code of the streets Informal rules that govern interpersonal behavior Heart of the code is fear of being disrespected

Policy implications Generally unclear Change the values of the lower class Reduce the incidence of single-parent (female-based) households

Subcultural Theory Criticism
Narrow scope Focus on lower-class boys Does not account for white-collar crime, middle-class crime, or female offending Doubt whether gangs are truly subcultures Does not allow for individual deviance

Conclusion (1 of 2) Aspects of social culture can promote crime.
Work of Durkheim influenced social disorganization and strain theory.

Conclusion (2 of 2)

Chapter 6 Social Structure and Crime

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