1. Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood
Chapter 11
Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood

2. “Children are busy becoming something they have not quite grasped yet, something which keeps changing.”
Alastair Reid
American Poet, 20th Century

3. Learning Goals
Discuss emotional and personality development in middle and late childhood.
Describe parent-child issues and societal changes in families.
Identify changes in peer relationships in middle and late childhood.
Characterize the transition to elementary school and sociocultural aspects of schooling and achievement.

6. The Self The Development of Self-Understanding
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Industry Versus Inferiority

7. The Development of Self-Understanding
Self-understanding shifts from defining oneself through external characteristics to defining oneself through internal characteristics.
Elementary school children are more likely to define themselves in terms of social characteristics.
Self-understanding now includes increasing reference to social comparison—what they can do in comparison with others.

8. Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept?
Research on Self-Esteem
Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem

9. What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept?
Self-esteem - global evaluations of the self
Also referred to as self-worth or self-image
Self-concept - domain-specific evaluations of the self
Children can make evaluations about themselves academically, athletically, based on their appearance, etc.

10. Research on Self-Esteem
Self-esteem found to be stable at least across a month or so of time.
Self-esteem can change, especially in response to transitions in life.
Elementary school children engage in social comparison, which can lower their self-esteem.
Low-self esteem is related to depression.
Much research is correlational not experimental.

11. Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem
Identify the causes of low self-esteem
Provide emotional support and social approval
Help children achieve
Help children cope

12. Industry Versus Inferiority
In Erikson’s fourth stage, industry refers to the fact that children become interested in how things are made and how they work.
When encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work, children’s sense of industry increases.
Parents who see their children’s efforts as making “mischief” or “a mess” encourage children’s development of a sense of inferiority.
School plays a very important role in this stage.

13. Emotional Development
Developmental Changes
Emotional Intelligence

14. Developmental Changes
Increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame
Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation
Increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions
Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings

15. Emotional Intelligence
The concept of emotional intelligence initially was proposed as a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.
Goleman’s view of emotional intelligence involves:
Developing Emotional Self-Awareness
Managing Emotions
Reading Emotions
Handling Relationships

16. Coping With Stress
As children get older, they are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it.
By 10 years of age, children are able to use cognitive strategies to cope with stress.
Intentionally shift their thoughts to something less stressful
Engage in reframing (changing their perception of a stressful situation).

17. Coping With Stress (cont.)
Recommendations for helping children cope with the stress of traumatic events:
Reinforce ideas of safety and security
Listen to and tolerate children retelling events
Encourage children to talk about confusing feelings, worries, daydreams, and disruptions of concentration

18. Coping With Stress (cont.)
Recommendations for helping children cope with the stress of traumatic events:
Help children make sense of what happened
Provide reassurance to children so that they will be able to handle stressful feelings over time
Protect children from rexposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma

19. Moral Development Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Critics
Prosocial Behavior and Altruism

20. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg stressed that moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning and unfolds in stages.
He arrived at his view after 20 years of using a unique interview with children in which they are presented with a series of stories in which characters face moral dilemmas.

22. Internalization A key concept in understanding is internalization.
It is the developmental change from behavior that is externally controlled to behavior that is controlled by internal standards and principles.
As children and adolescents develop, their moral thoughts become more internalized.

23. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional Level
Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality
Stage 2: Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange
Level 2: Conventional Level
Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity
Stage 4: Social System Morality
Level 3: Postconventional Level
Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

24. Kohlberg’s Critics Moral Thought and Moral Behavior
Culture and Moral Development
Family Processes and Moral Development
Gender and the Care Perspective

25. Moral Thought and Moral Behavior
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior.
Moral reasons can sometimes be a shelter for immoral behavior.
Cheaters and thieves may know what is right yet still do what is wrong.

26. Culture and Moral Development
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for being culturally biased.
Moral reasoning is more culture-specific than Kohlberg envisioned.
His scoring system does not recognize higher-level moral reasoning in certain cultural groups.
His system would not score values related to:
Communal equity and collective happiness in Israel.
The unity and sacredness of all life forms in India.
The relation of the individual to the community in New Guinea.

27. Family Processes and Moral Development
Kohlberg claimed family processes are essentially unimportant in children’s moral development, and that peers are more likely to be an influence.
Many developmentalists believe that Kohlberg underestimated the contribution of family relationships to moral development.
They emphasize that inductive discipline positively influences moral development.
Parents’ moral values are also believed to influence children’s developing moral thoughts.

28. Gender and the Care Perspective
Kohlberg’s theory is a justice perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual; individuals stand alone and independently make moral decisions.
The care perspective is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others.

29. Gender and the Care Perspective (con’t)
Carol Gilligan believed Kohlberg greatly under-played the care perspective in moral development, due to being male, using primarily males for his research, and basing his theory on male responses.
Gilligan’s research found that girls consistently interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships.
Other research has found that the gender differences in moral reasoning are not absolute.

30. Prosocial Behavior and Altruism
Children’s moral behavior can involve:
Negative antisocial acts – lying, cheating, and stealing
Prosocial behavior – showing empathy to someone, or behaving altrusistically
Altruism – is an unselfish interest in helping someone else.

31. Gender Gender Stereotypes Gender Similarities and Differences
Gender-Role Classification
Gender in Context

32. Gender Stereotypes
Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males.
Males are widely believed to be dominant, independent, aggressive, achievement-oriented, and enduring.
Females are widely believed to be nurturant, affiliative, less esteemed, and more helpful.

33. Gender Similarities and Differences
Physical Similarities and Differences
Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Socioemotional Similarities and Differences

34. Physical Similarities and Differences
Females have a longer life expectancy.
Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders.
Males have twice the risk of coronary disease.
Females produce more “good” cholesterol.
Women have about twice the body fat of men.
Fat is concentrated around breasts and hips in women, the abdomen in men.
On average, males grow to be 10% taller.

35. Physical Similarities and Differences
Human brains are much alike, whether the brain is from a male or female, however, research has found some differences:
Part of hypothalamus is larger in men
Portions of the corpus callosum is larger in females
An area of the parietal lobe is larger in males
The areas of the brain involved in emotional expression show more metabolic activity in females

36. Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Controversy exists as to true cognitive differences between males and females.
Some studies have shown that males perform better on math and visuospatial tasks, while females have better verbal skills, although some research has shown that verbal skills are equal.
Overall, girls are found to be far superior students, while boys do slightly better at math and science.

37. Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Boys are more physically aggressive than girls.
Gender differences often disappear in measuring verbal aggression, although sometimes it is more pronounced in girls.
Males usually show less self-regulation than females.
Low self-regulation has been found to be linked with greater aggression, the teasing of others, overreaction to frustration, low cooperation, and inability to delay gratification.

38. Gender-Role Classification
In the past, a well-adjusted boy was supposed to be independent, aggressive, and powerful.
A well-adjusted girl was supposed to be dependent, nurturant, and uninterested in power.
Society considered masculine characteristics healthy and good, feminine characteristics undesirable.
The concept of androgyny was developed in the 1970s in response to dissatisfaction by both males and females with the burdens imposed by their roles.

39. Androgyny
Refers to the presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person.
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory is used to assess androgyny.
Sandra Bem argues that androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy than their masculine or feminine counterparts.
To some degree, which gender-role classification is best depends on the context involved.

40. Gender In Context
The concept of Gender-Role Classification involves a personality trait-like categorization of a person.
Emotional differences between females and males often show up in contexts that highlight social roles and relationships.
In the U.S. , there is a greater acceptance of androgyny and similarities in male and female behavior, many countries gender roles remain gender-specific

42. Parent-Child Issues The introduction of chores and payment
Helping children learn to entertain themselves
Monitoring children’s lives outside the family in school and peer settings
School-related matters are especially important for families during middle and late childhood.
School-related difficulties are the number one reason children in this age group are referred for clinical help.

43. Parent-Child Issues
Discipline is easier than during early childhood and often easier than in adolescence
Coregulation of control
The coregulation process is a transition period between the strong parental control of early childhood and the increased relinquishment of general supervision of adolescence.

44. Societal Changes in Families
Stepfamilies
Latchkey Children

45. Stepfamilies Three types of stepfamily structure:
Stepfather – mother has custody of children and has remarried
Stepmother – father usually has custody of children and has remarried
Blended or complex – both parents bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed family
Children in simple families (stepmother, stepfather) often show better adjustment than their counterparts in complex (blended) families

46. Stepfamilies (cont.) Problems mimic those of children of divorce:
academic problems
lower self-esteem
Although a majority of children in stepfamilies do not have problems.

47. Latchkey Children
These children typically do not see their parents from the time they leave for school in the morning until about 6 or 7 P.M.
Latchkey children are largely unsupervised for 2 to 4 hours a day during the week.
During the summer they may be unsupervised for entire days, 5 days a week.
The experiences of latchkey children vary enormously.

48. Findings on Latchkey Children
Some grow up too fast, due to responsibilities.
Many more easily find their way into trouble, possibly stealing, vandalizing, or abusing a sibling.
In a 1987 national poll, teachers rated the latchkey children phenomenon the number one reason that children have problems in schools.
Parental monitoring and authoritative parenting help the child cope more effectively with latchkey experiences, especially in resisting peer pressure.

50. Friends Companionship Stimulation Physical support Ego support
Social comparison
Intimacy and affection

51. Friends (cont.)
Friends can be cognitive and emotional resources from childhood through old age.
Friends can foster self-esteem and a sense of well-being.
Developmental advantages occur when children have friends who are socially skilled and supportive.
Intimacy in friendships is self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts.

52. Peer Statuses
Popular children - frequently nominated as a best friend, rarely disliked by peers.
Neglected children - infrequently nominated as a best friend, not disliked by peers.
Rejected children - infrequently nominated as a best friend, actively disliked by peers.
Controversial children - frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked.

53. Rejected Children
Often have more serious adjustment problems later in life than do neglected children.
The key factor in predicting whether rejected children would engage in delinquent behavior was aggression toward peers in elementary school.
Not all are aggressive; 10-20% are shy.
The goal of training programs for rejected children is to help them listen to peers, instead of trying to dominate peer interactions.

54. Social Cognition Involves thoughts about social matters.
Social knowledge is involved in children’s ability to get along with peers.
An important part of children’s social life involves knowing what goals to pursue in poorly defined or ambiguous situations.
Social relationship goals, such as how to initiate and maintain a social bond are also important.
Children need to know what scripts to follow to get other children to be their friends.

55. Bullying
Bullying is verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful.
In recent study, nearly 1 out of every three students said they had experienced occasional or frequent involvement as a victim or perpetrator in bullying.
In one study, both victim and bullying behavior were linked to parent-child relationships.

57. Reducing Bullying
Get older peers to serve as monitors for bullying and intervene when they see it taking place.
Develop schoolwide rules and sanctions against bullying and post them throughout the school.
Form friendship groups for adolescents who are regularly bullied by peers.
Incorporate the message of the antibullying program into church, school, and other community activities where adolescence are involved.

59. The Transition to Elementary School
Children entering 1st grade take up a new role, interact and develop relationships with new significant others, adopt new reference groups, and develop new standards for judging themselves.
School provides children with a rich source of new ideas to shape their sense of self.
There is emerging concern about new evidence showing that early schooling proceeds mainly on the basis of negative feedback.

60. Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in Schools
The Education of Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds
Ethnicity in Schools

61. The Education of Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds
Many children in poverty face problems at home and at school that present barriers to their learning.
Many schools of children from impoverished backgrounds attend have fewer resources than do the schools in higher-income neighborhoods.
Schools in low-income areas are more likely to encourage rote learning rather than thinking skills.

62. Ethnicity in Schools
The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably.
School segregation is still a factor in the education of children of color in the U.S.
John Ogbu proposed the view that ethnic minority students are placed in a position of subordination and exploitation in the American educational system.
He believes students of color have inferior educational opportunities, are exposed to educators who have low academic expectations of them, and encounter negative stereotypes.

63. Strategies for Improving Relations Between Ethnically Diverse Students
Turn the classroom into a jigsaw classroom.
Use technology to foster cooperation with students from around the world.
Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students.
Encourage students to engage in perspective taking.

64. Strategies for Improving Relations Between Ethnically Diverse Students
Help students think critically and be emotionally intelligent when cultural issues are involved.
Reduce bias.
View the school and community as a team to help support teaching efforts.
Be a competent cultural mediator.

65. Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Achievement
In a cross-national comparison of 9- to 13-year-old students, the U.S. finished 13th out of 15 in science, and 15th out of 16 in math achievement.
In this study, Korean and Taiwanese students finished first and second, respectively.
Studies have shown Asian students consistently outperform American students.
Critics say many studies compare U.S. children to a “select” group of international children.

66. Reasons for Cross-Cultural Differences
Research found Asian teachers spent more of their time teaching math than did American teachers.
Asian students were in school an average of 240 days a year, compared with 178 days in the U.S.
American parents had much lower expectations for their children’s education than Asian parents.
American parents were more likely to believe that their children’s achievement was due to innate ability, and they were less likely to help them with their homework.