1. Chapter 10 Review Thinking And Language
By:
Sharese Scales
Kasean Carnes
Viola Lewis

3. Key Terms
Cognition- the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, memory and communicating.
Concept- a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people.
Prototype- A mental image or best example of a category.
Algorithm- a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Heuristic- a simple thinking strategy that helps us make decisions more effectively.
Insight- a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.
Confirmation bias- a tendency to search for information that confirms one perceptions.

4. Key Terms Cont.
Fixation-the inability to see a problem from a different look.
Mental set-a tendency to approach a problem in a different way.
Functional fixedness-the tendency to think things only in their usual functions.
Representatives heuristic-judging things on hw they seem to look or fit.
Availability heuristic-estimating the likelihood of events based on memory.
Overconfidence- the tendency to be more confident than right.
Framing- the way an problem is posed.
Belief bias- the tendency for ones preexisting beliefs to distort logic reasoning.
Belief perseverance- clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis on which they was formed.
Language-spoken, written or signed words to communicate
Phoneme- the smallest distinctive sound unit.
Morpheme-the smallest unit that carries meaning.

5. Key Terms Cont Semantics- the study of meaning.
Syntax-the rules for combining words into sentences.
Babbling stage- babies utter sounds
One word stage- babies speak single words
Two word stage- babies speak two word statements
Telegraphic speech- children start to speak like a telegram with verbs and nouns.
Linguistic determinism- linguist Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
Grammar- enables us to communicate with others better..

6. Thinking
Refers to all the mental activities Our cognitive system receives, perceives, and retrieves information, which we then use to think and communicate, sometimes wisely, sometimes foolishly. In the chapter it shows how we form concepts, solve problems, and make judgments and decisions.

7. Concepts
Concepts simplify and order the world by organizing it into a hierarchy of categories. Concepts often form around prototypes, or best examples of a category. Matching objects and ideas with prototypes is an efficient way of making snap judgments about what belongs in a specific category.

9. Solving Problems
When faced with a novel situation for which no well-learned response will do, we may use such strategies as algorithms and heuristics. Sometimes the solution comes in a flash of insight. We do, however, face obstacles to successful problem solving. The confirmation bias predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses. And fixations, such as mental set and functional fixedness, may prevent our taking a needed fresh perspective on a problem.

11. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
Our use of heuristics, such as representativeness and availability, provides highly efficient but occasionally misleading guides for making quick decisions and forming intuitive judgments. Our tendencies to seek confirmation of our hypotheses and to use quick and easy heuristics can blind us to our vulnerability to error, a phenomenon known as overconfidence. And the way someone poses, or frames, a question affects our responses.

13. Belief Bias
We tend to show a belief bias in our reasoning, accepting as more logical those conclusions that agree with our beliefs. We also exhibit belief perseverance, clinging to our ideas because the explanation we accepted as valid lingers in the mind even after the basis for the ideas has been discredited. Yet despite our capacity for error and our susceptibility to bias, human cognition is remarkably efficient and adaptive. As we gain expertise in a field, we grow adept at making quick, shrewd judgments

14. Language Development
Among the marvels of nature is a child’s ability to acquire language. The ease with which children progress from the babbling stage through the one-word stage to the telegraphic speech of the two-word stage and beyond has sparked a lively debate concerning how they do it. Behaviorist B. F. Skinner proposed that we learn language by the familiar principles of association, reinforcement, and imitation. Challenging this claim, linguist Noam Chomsky argued that children are biologically prepared to learn words and use grammar. Cognitive neuroscientists emphasize that for mastery of grammar, the learning that occurs during life’s first few years, when the brain is building a dense network of neuronal connections, is critical.

16. Summary Of Language Development
4 month baby- may babble many speech sounds.
10 Month baby- Babbling resembles household language.
12 month baby- Is at a one-word stage
24 months- Is at a two-word telegraphic speech.
24 months or on- language develops rapidly into complete sentences.

17. Thinking and Language
We consider thinking and language in the same chapter, for they are hard to separate.
Language Influences Thinking
Words convey ideas, and different languages embody different ways of thinking. Although the linguistic relativity hypothesis suggested that language determines thought, it is more accurate to say that language influences thought. Studies of the effects of the generic pronoun he and the ability of vocabulary enrichment to enhance thinking reveal the influence of words.

19. Thinking in Images
We sometimes think in images rather than in words, and we invent new words or new combinations of old words to describe new ideas. So we might say that our thinking affects our language, which then affects our thought.

20. In The Case of the Apes
Our closest genetic relatives are the chimpanzees. Several teams of psychologists have taught various species of apes, including a number of chimpanzees, to communicate with humans by signing or by pushing buttons wired to a computer. Apes have developed considerable vocabularies. They string words together to express meaning and to make and follow requests. Skeptics point out important differences between apes’ and humans’ facilities with language, especially in their respective abilities to order words using proper syntax. Nevertheless, these studies reveal that apes have considerable cognitive ability.

22. Animal Thinking and Language
Do Animals Think?
Evidence accumulates that primates at some level form concepts, display insight, create and use tools, and transmit cultural innovations. Many researchers feel that great apes’ mental accomplishments rival those of a 2-year-old human.
Do Animals Exhibit Language?
Another vigorously debated issue is whether language is uniquely human. Animals obviously communicate. Bees, for example, communicate the location of food through an intricate combination of dance and sound. But can this form of communication be considered language?