1. Classification of Crude drugs
L.A. Dilbreen H. A. Barzanji

2. 1- Alphabateical classification
The crude drugs are arranged according to the alphabetic order of their Latin or English names. Some of the pharmacopoeia and reference books which classify crude drugs according to this system are: Indian pharmacopoeia(IP) British pharmacopoeia (BP) British herbal pharmacopoeia (BHP) United States Pharmacopoeia and national formulary (USP/NF) British pharmaceutical codex European pharmacopoeia(EP) Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in drugs and cosmetics e.g. Acacia, benzoin, cinchona, dill, ergot ……..zedoary

3. 2- Taxonomical (biological) classification
The drugs are classified according to plants or animals from which they are obtained in phyla, division, class, order, families, genus, species, subspecies, etc. This classification is based on the consideration of natural relationship or phylogeny among plants or animals. The crude drugs of plant origin are classified on the basis of one of the accepted systems of botanical classification. A large number of plant families have certain distinguishing characteristics that permit crude drugs from these families to be studied at one time. thus drugs obtained from plants having alternate leaves, cymose flowers and fruits that are berries or capsules (hyoscyamus, datura, belladonna and stramonium) are considered with other members of Solanaceae).

4. In case of animals, all arthropods are grouped, as are all mammals, fish and other phylogenetic types.
This system of classification are criticized for its failure to recognize the organized and unorganized nature of the crude drug.
At first sight, this classification looks appealing, but many drugs are not entire plants and represent parts of the plants that have been processed systemically.
Further, the system fails to take into account the chemical nature of active constituents and therapeutic significance of crude drugs.

5. e.g.
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Division: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledons
Order: Rosales
Family : Leguminosae
Genus: Glycerrhiza
Species: Glycerrhiza glabra

6. 3- Morphological classification:
The crude drugs are grouped according to the part of the plant or animal represented into organized and unorganized drugs.
The organized drugs are divided into parts of plants like leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, etc.
the unorganized drugs are dried latex, gums, extracts, etc.

7. Seeds: Castor, nux-vomica
Leaves: senna, eucalyptus
Barks: cinchona, cinnamon
Woods: Quassia, Sassafras
Roots: Rauwolfia, Ipecacuanha
Rhizomes: Ginger, Valerian
Flowers: Clove, Pyrethrum
Fruits: Coriander, Fennel
Entire drugs: Ephedra, Ergot

8. Dried lattices: Opium, Papain
Resins: Balsam of Tolu, Benzoin
Dried juices: Aloes, Kino
Gums: Acacia, Guar
Dried extracts: Gelatin, Agar
This system of classification is more convenient for practical study especially when the chemical nature of the drug is not clearly understood.

9. 4- Chemical classification:
The crude drugs are divided into different groups according to the chemical nature of their most important constituent.
Since the pharmacological activity and therapeutic activity of crude drugs are based on the nature of their chemical constituents, it would be appear that chemical classification of crude drugs is the preferred method of study.

10. Glycosides: Digitalis, liquorice
Alkaloids: Ergot, Cinchona
Tannins: Myrobalan, Ashoka
Volatile oils: Peppermint, Eucalyptus
Lipids: Castor oil, Cod liver oil
Carbohydrates: Acacia, Honey
Resins: Balsam of Tolu, Jalap
Vitamins and Hormones: Oxytocin, Insulin
Proteins and Enzymes: Gelatin, Casein

11. 5- Pharmacological (Therapeutic) Classification:
This system of classification involves the grouping of crude drugs according to the pharmacological action of their active constituent or their therapeutic uses. Cascara, Castor oil, Senna, Jalap, Colocynth are grouped together as purgatives or laxatives because of their common pharmacological action. The drug differing in mechanism of action, but with the same pharmacological effect are grouped together. Some of the drugs could be classified under two pharmacological leadings, since they exhibit two different actions, for example, Cinchona is classified both as antimalarial and bitter tonic.

12. Ex. drugs acting on GIT
Bitters: Cinchona, Gentian
Carminative: Dill, Cardamom
Emetics: Ipecacuanha
Bulk laxatives: Agar, Ispaghula
Purgatives: Senna, Castor oil

13. Production of crude drugs:
The crude drug that that reaches the pharmaceutical manufacturing line will have passed through various stages, all of which influence the nature and amount of active constituents present.

14. 1- Source materials:
It is imperative that correct identification of the source material is made.
Adulteration may be accidental, particularly if collection is made from wild plants, or it may be deliberate.
Failure in this area can result in poisoning (e.g. hemlock fruits mistaken for other umbilliferous fruits) or
inactive products (e.g. substituition of St. John’s wort with other vegetable material when demand exceed supply).

15. For pharmacopoeial drugs, precise macroscopic and microscopic characters are available.
For isolation of specific constituents, the source can vary, e.g. hyoscine obtained from a number of solanaceous species.

16. 2- Environmental conditions:
Plant growth and development, and often the nature and quantity of secondary metabolites, are affected by:
Temperature
Rainfall
Day-length and radiation characteristic
Altitude

17. 3- Cultivation and wild plants
Crude drugs are now obtained most exclusively cultivated plants. These include cardamoms, Indian hemp, ginger and peppermint and spearmint for oil production.
In other cases both wild and cultivated plants are used.
There is a turning into cultivation because wild plants are
insufficient to meet the demand
sparse distribution
inaccessibility
collection is difficult
governmental control (e.g. in case of opium)
some wild plants are in danger of over-exploitation.

18. 4- Collection:
Drugs may be collected from wild or cultivated plants, and the task may undertaken by casual, unskilled native labour (e.g. ipecacuanha) or by skilled workers in a highly scientific manner (e.g. digitalis, belladonna, cinchona).
The season at which each drug is collected is usually a matter of considerable importance, as the amount, and sometimes the nature, of active constituents is not constant throughout the year. e.g. rhubarb is reported to contain no anthraquinone derivatives in winter but anthranols which, on the arrival of warmer weather, are converted by oxidation into anthraquinones.

19. The age of plant is also of considerable importance and governs not only the total quantity of active constituents produced but also the relative proportions of components of the active mixture. e.g. Mentha piperita give relatively high proportion of pulegone in young plants: replaced by menthone and menthol as leaves mature.

20. Generally speaking,
leaves are collected as the flowers are beginning to open
Flowers just before they are fully expanded
The underground organs as the aerial parts die down
Leaves, flowers and fruits should not be collected when covered with dew or rain.
Any which are discoloured or attacked by insects or slugs should be rejected.
Even with hand picking, it is difficult, certainly expensive, to get leaves, flowers or fruits entirely free from other parts of the plant. In cases such as senna leaf and digitalis the official monographs allow a certain percentage of stalks to be present or a limited amount of ‘foreign matter’. Similarly, with roots and rhizomes a certain amount of areal stem is often collected and is permitted in the case of Senega root.

21. Special machines are used to harvest ergot and lavender flowers.
Barks are usually collected after a period of damp weather, as they then separate mostly from the wood.
For separation of gums, gum resins, etc., dry weather is obviously indicated and care should be taken to exclude vegetable debris as far as possible.
Underground organs must be freed from soil. Shaking the drug before, during and after drying, or brushing it , may be sufficient to separate a sandy soil, but in cases of clay or other heavy soil; washing is necessary. Before drying, any wormy or diseased rhizomes or roots should be rejected.
All large organs should be sliced to facilitate drying.
Seeds such as nux vomica and cocoa, which are extracted from mucilaginous fruits, are washed free from pulp before drying.

22. 5- Drying
If enzymatic action is to be encouraged, slow drying at a moderate temperature is necessary. e.g. ‘vanilla pods’ and ‘gentian roots’.
If enzymic action is not desired, drying should be take place as soon as possible after collection.
Drugs containing volatile oils are liable to lose their aroma if not dried or if the oil is not distilled from them immediately, and all moist drugs are liable to develop mould. For these reasons, drying apparatus and stills should be situated as near to the growing plants as possible.

23. The duration of drying process varies from a few hours to many weeks, and in the case of open-air drying depends very largely on the weather. In suitable climates open-air drying is used for such drugs as clove, colocynth, cardamom and cinnamon.
Even in warm and dry climates arrangements have to be made for getting the drug under the cover of sheds or tarpaulins at night or during wet weather. For drying in sheds the drugs may be suspended in bundles from the roof, threaded on strings, as in the case of Chinese rhubarb, or more commonly placed on trays made of sacking or tinned wire-netting.
Papers spread on a wooden framework are also used, particularly for fruits from which it is desired to collect the seeds

24. Drying by artificial heat is more rapid than open-air drying and is often necessary in tropical countries (e.g. west Africa, where the humidity is very high).
In Europe continuous belt driers are used for large crops such as digitalis.
Alternatively heat may be applied means of open fires (e.g. nutmegs), stoves or hot-water pipes.
In all drying sheds there must be a space of at least 15 cm between superimposed trays, and air must circulate freely

25. As a general rule, leaves, herbs and flowers may be dried between 20 and 40 oC, and barks and roots between 30 and 65 oC.
If leaves and other delicate structures are over dried, they become very brittle and tend to break in transit.
Exactly how far drying is to be carried is a matter for practical experience.

26. 6- Storage
Long storage, although often unavoidable, is not to be recommended,
Drugs such as Indian hemp and sarsaparilla deteriorate even when carefully stored.
Few cases such as cascara bark need long storage before indicated to be used.
It has been reported that the content of taxol in Taxus baccata leaves stored at room temperature for one year decreased by30-40% , storage in freezer and out of direct sunlight produced no adverse deterioration.
Similarly the alkamides of the popular immunostimulant herb Echinacea purpurea decrease rapidly on storage.

27. drugs stored in the usual containers: sacks, bales, wooden cases, cardboard boxes and paper bags reabsorb about 10-12% or more of moisture.
Plastic sacks will effectively seal the contents.
Drugs such as digitalis and Indian hemp should never be allowed to become moist or they lose a considerable part of their activity. They may kept in sealed containers with a dehydrating agent.

28. Volatile oil should be stored in sealed, well-filled containers in a cool, dark place.
Similar remarks apply to fixed oils, particularly cod-liver oil.
In order to reduce undesirable microbial contamination and to prevent the development of other living organisms, some plant materials may require sterilization before storage.