1. Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience
Learning
Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience

2. AP Exam
Learning (7–9%)
This section of the course introduces students to differences between learned and unlearned behavior. The primary focus is exploration of different kinds of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. The biological bases of behavior illustrate predispositions for learning.
AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:
• Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning (e.g., contingencies).
• Describe basic classical conditioning phenomena, such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, and higher-order learning.
• Predict the effects of operant conditioning (e.g., positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment).
• Predict how practice, schedules of reinforcement, and motivation will influence quality of learning.
• Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments.
• Provide examples of how biological constraints create learning predispositions.
• Describe the essential characteristics of insight learning, latent learning, and social learning.
• Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious behavior, and learned helplessness.
• Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and self-control can be used to address behavioral problems.
• Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning (e.g., Albert Bandura, John Garcia, Ivan Pavlov, Robert Rescorla, B. F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, Edward Tolman, John B. Watson).

3. Classical Conditioning crash course khanacademy
Ivan Pavlov
studied digestion of dogs
noticed dogs would salivate before they were given food (triggered by sounds, lights etc…)
concluded: dogs must have LEARNED to salivate in response to stimuli other than the food
Classic Conditioning: YouTube – Dwight and Jim / Big Bang Theory
Click above to see a reenactment of Pavlov’s experiments.

4. Classical Conditioning
This is passive learning.
First, we need an unconditional relationship.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - something that elicits a natural, reflexive response
Unconditioned Response (UCR) - response to the UCS

5. Classical Conditioning
Next, we choose a neutral stimulus - something that by itself elicits no response.
We present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times.

6. Classical Conditioning
After a while, the body begins to link together the neutral stimulus with the UCS.
Acquisition

7. Classical Conditioning
We know learning takes places when the previously neutral stimulus provokes the response.
At this point, the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response (CR).

8. Classical Conditioning
Acquisition is not permanent.
The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.

9. Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes, after extinction, the CR will randomly appear when CS is presented.

10. Classical Conditioning Examples
See if you can identify the UCS, UCR, CS and CR.
Click above to see classical conditioning as portrayed in The Office.
Click above to see classical conditioning in a high school student’s own “experiment”.

11. Timing Matters
Delayed Conditioning: present CS, while CS is still there, present UCS.
Trace Conditioning: present CS, short break, then present UCS.
Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and UCS are presented at the same time.
Backward Conditioning: UCS is presented, then CS is presented.

12. First-Order and Second-Order Conditioning
First Order Conditioning.
Bell + meat = salivation.
Bell = Salivation.
Second Order Conditioning
(After first order conditioning has occurred)
Light + Bell = Salivation.
Light = Salivation.

13. TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE: UCS ? UCR? CS? CR?
You typically take showers in the locker room after practice. During one such shower, you hear someone flushing a nearby toilet. Suddenly, extremely hot water rushes out of the shower head, causing serious discomfort. As you continue the shower, you hear another toilet flush and immediately jump out form under the shower head.

14. UCS? UCR? CS? CR?
Your mother prepared a tuna sandwich for your lunch. Unfortunately, the mayonnaise she used had been left out too long and was spoiled. Not long after eating, you felt extremely nauseated and had to rush to the bathroom. Thereafter, the mere mention of a tuna sandwich sent you scurrying to the bathroom with a hurting stomach.

15. UCS? UCR? CS? CR?
You were happy when you heard your family's plan to go to a water show. Then you heard the weather report, which predicted temperatures exceeding 100 degrees. As you watched the water skiers perform routines to blaring organ music, you got more and more sweaty and uncomfortable. Eventually, you fainted from the heat. After the family outing you could never again hear organ music without feeling a little dizzy.

16. Classical Conditioning and Humans
John Watson brought classical conditioning to psychology with his “Baby Albert” experiment.
Click the image to the left to see footage from the “Baby Albert” experiment.

17. Generalization and Discrimination khanacademy
Something is so similar to the CS that there is the CR.
Something is so different from the CS there is no CR.

18. Garcia and Koelling Study
Studied rats / conditioning
Conclusion #1 - Even if sickened several hours later, rats developed taste aversions.
Conclusion #2 – Rats developed aversions to taste, but not sight, sound, etc. CS
UCS CR
Loud Noise
Radiation (nausea)
NONE
Sweet Water
Shock
Avoid Water

19. Taste Aversions
In cases of food paired with nausea & sickness, conditioning is incredibly strong.
even when food and sickness are hours apart

20. Contingency Model Robert Rescorla
revised Pavlov’s classical conditioning model
starts with the realization that something must account for the ability to discriminate between stimuli
emphasized the role of cognitive processes during acquisition
said that classical conditioning “is not a stupid process by which the organism willy-nilly forms associations between any two stimuli that happen to occur.”

21. Classical Conditioning and Therapy
We use Classical Conditioning in modern day therapy in two very distinct ways.
Aversive Conditioning: Aversive conditioning is usually used to stop a particular behavior.  The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea.  If I wanted to stop Shanikwa from smoking I could shock her every time she smokes.  The shock is the UCS and the pain is the UCR.  Once the smoking becomes associated with the electric shock (acquisition), Shanikwa will experience pain when she smokes, even without the shock.  Thus the smoking will become the CS and the pain the CR (but only if the shock is no longer given).
Systematic Desensitization: Systematic Desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation.  It works great with phobias.  If Akira has a horrific phobia of spiders, the therapist will teach Akira relaxation techniques (or give Akira a magical feel good drug).  Slowly spiders are introduced to Akira.  First maybe just a picture, then one in a cage, then one outside of a cage etc...  The goal is to get Akira to associate spiders with the drugs or relaxation techniques.  Eventually, seeing a spider will cause Akira to relax (in theory). 

22. Operant Conditioning start @ 5:47
The Learner is NOT passive.
Learning based on consequence!!!
khan academy
Big Bang

23. The Law of Effect Edward Thorndike Locked cats in crates
Behavior changes because of its consequences
Rewards strengthen behavior
If consequences are unpleasant, the stimulus-reward connection will weaken.
Called the whole process instrumental learning
Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect.

25. B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning
Emphasized nurture (environment) and the minimal role of free-will / mental processes.
Used a “Skinner Box” (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts.

26. Skinner Box

27. Reinforcers khanacademy
A reinforcer is anything that strengthens (increases) a behavior
Positive Reinforcement:
The addition of something pleasant
Negative Reinforcement:
The removal of something unpleasant

28. Positively or Negatively Reinforced?
Studying for a test.
Putting your seatbelt on.
Taking an aspirin.
Receiving a kiss for doing the dishes.
Faking sick and avoiding AP Psych class.
Breaking out of jail.

29. + Positive - Negative Reinforcement Punishment
Gives something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject wants this thing/condition)
Takes something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition)
Gives something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition)
Takes something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject would like to have this thing/condition)

30. Punishment A stimulus meant to decrease a behavior Positive Punishment
addition of something unpleasant.
Negative Punishment (Omission Training)
removal of something pleasant
Punishment works best when it immediately follows behavior and is harsh!

31. How do we actually use Operant Conditioning? khanacademy
Sometimes, we use a process called shaping.
Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to a desired behavior. These small steps are called approximations.

32. Chaining Behaviors
Subjects are taught to link multiple responses together in order to get a reward.
Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors.
Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors.

33. Same Terminology as Classical Conditioning
If I wanted to reinforce a toddler’s dancing by giving him lollipops when he dances, identify the following…
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination

34. Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer
Secondary Reinforcer
things that are intrinsically rewarding
things we have learned to value (because they are associated with primary enforcers)
Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything)

35. Token Economy
Every time a desired behavior is performed, a “token” is given.
They can trade “tokens” in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)
Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.

36. Reinforcement Schedules khanacademy
How often do you give the reinforcer?
Every time the desired behavior is exhibited or just sometimes when it is?

37. Continuous v. Partial Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforce the behavior EVERY TIME the behavior is exhibited.
Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association.
Acquisition comes really fast, but so does extinction.
EX: every time you put
a dollar in the coke machine you get a coke
Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited.
Acquisition comes more slowly.
But is more resistant to extinction.
FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules.

38. Ratio Schedules (Responses)
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses.
Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses.
Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.
Fixed Ratio- She gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses.

39. Interval Schedules (Time)
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
Requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.
Fixed Interval: She gets a manicure for every 7 days she stays on her diet.

40. Which type of reinforcement schedule?
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval

44. Primary vs. Conditioned Schedules Ratio Interval Punishment Negative
Operant Conditioning
Concepts / Components
Reinforcement
Negative vs. Positive
Primary vs. Conditioned
Schedules
Ratio
Interval
Punishment
Negative
Positive
People
Thorndike
Law of Effect / Cat Experiments
Skinner
Skinner Box / Rat & Bird Experiments
Response / Stimulus Associations

45. Latent Learning
Edward Tolman – demonstrated the concept using rats/mazes & reinforcers.
Learning is not always immediately observable in behavior (“latent” means hidden).
Learning doesn’t completely depend on consequences.
cognitive maps – a mental representation of one’s environment

46. Edward Tolman and Latent Learning

47. Insight Learning
Wolfgang Kohler - Chimpanzees / Boxes & Bananas experiment
Learning takes place through the “ah ha” experience (gaining “insight”).
Weakens the behaviorist argument (emphasis on external, behavior / consequence relationship)

48. Images from Kohler’s chimpanzee experiments

49. Observational Learning khanacademy crash course
Albert Bandura - BoBo Doll experiment
Learning through modeling behavior from others.
Observational learning + Operant Conditioning Principles = Social Learning Theory
Implications of Bandura’s findings?
Click pic to see footage from the Bobo Doll experiment.

51. Contingency Model Robert Rescorla
revised Pavlov’s classical conditioning model
starts with the realization that something must account for the ability to discriminate between stimuli
emphasized the role of cognitive processes during acquisition
said that classical conditioning “is not a stupid process by which the organism willy-nilly forms associations between any two stimuli that happen to occur.”

52. Over-justification effect
An external incentive (ex: money) causes people to perform an intrinsic task less
ex: giving blood
ex: Israeli day cares
ex: volunteering

53. Classical Conditioning S + S Operant Conditioning R + S Other
Learning
Associative Learning
Classical Conditioning
S + S
Operant Conditioning
R + S
Other
Latent Learning
Insight Learning
Observational Learning

54. Review

55. Putting it all together:based on psychologist John Rosemond’s suggestion, analyze his proposed solution using 5 terms/ideas from this chapter in your analysis
Teenage son in need of a drastic wake-up call
   Q: Our 17-year-old is a highly spoiled underachiever. As a junior in high school, he’s failing two classes and borderline in the rest. We know that his problems are largely due to our parenting style. We read your book on teens and have made some progress, but we’re feeling a sense of urgency. We’re ready to do some drastic things. Where do you think we should start? (continued on next slide)
   

56. A: As you now realize, your son is in dire need of a major wake-up call. Start by stripping his room down to bare essentials, taking away any and all electronic devices, and suspending all of his privileges, including driving. Inform him that his normal life will be restored when he has improved his grades to no less than what he’s capable of and sustained the improvement for eight weeks. Anything less will invite cursory improvement, then backsliding. You could get stuck in that sort of manipulative back-and-forth forever.
   Unfortunately, this is an 11th-hour action. Obviously, the earlier parents intervene in a problem, the better the prognosis. On the other hand, it’s better to do something late than to never do anything at all. At this point, there’s a lot of history (and momentum) behind your son’s motivation issues. Getting him to turn himself around is going to require a unified front and calm, purposeful resolve. Don’t expect to see consistent progress for at least six weeks. Keep the faith, stay the course, and be fully prepared for things to get worse before they begin getting better.(continued on next slide)

57.    “Why is that, John?”
   Because when parents finally pull the rug of over-indulgence out from under an underachieving child, the typical reaction is full collapse along with complaints from the child to the effect that since he has no privilege, he now has nothing to care about; therefore, he is not going to do anything to bring up his grades until certain privileges are restored. Believe me, this is nothing more than manipulative self-drama, soap opera, with a heavy dose of attempted hostage-taking thrown in. It’s an attempt to get the parents to question their judgment and begin negotiating.
   “Will you give me my cell phone back if I bring my grades up for a week?” or “If you give me my cell phone and driving privileges back, I’ll bring my grades up, I promise.”
   Don’t do it! If your son begins making promises of that sort, don’t believe a word he says. Simply smile and tell him that if he can bring his grades up for a week, he can surely bring them up for two weeks, then three, then eight. Keep reminding him that you’re not asking him to do any more than he is capable of. If you give him even the proverbial inch, he will think he can make you give up the proverbial mile. In no time, you’ll be right back where you started from, but he will know that he can beat you at your own game.
   So, don’t play games. Go into this fully prepared for backlash of one sort or another. His reaction is likely to include anger, self-pity, and threats of running away or other equally silly things. This is your golden opportunity to get control of your relationship with your son. Given that he’s 17, it may be your last opportunity. (end of assignment)