Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

You are what you remember
Without memory you would have no past or future, only a present Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Memory Process Three step process….
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Figure 7A.2 A modified three-stage processing model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long-term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it. And so much active processing occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer the term working memory. © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Working memory: updated model
Process new information along with information from long term memory.Working memory associates new and old information and solves problems. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Let’s talk about encoding.
Putting info into the brain Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How we encode Automatic processing- parallel processing doing many things at once. Ex: you automatically process info about space, time, frequency: Speaking in your native language, Effortful processing- encoded info with a great deal of effort – usually long-lasting memories- uses rehearsal- remembering vocab words: Unit’s vocabulary Elaborative rehearsal- Relate the new information to something already in your Long Term Memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Encoding Information Serial Positioning effect (curve): By Ebbinghaus
Primacy Effect remember things at the beginning of a list Recency Effect remember things at the end of a list

Spacing Effect Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Encoding Exercise The Ways we can encode… We associate info with what we know: context and experiences Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.

Semantic encoding “Semantic” means meaning. We remember stuff that has meaning better than their structure and sounds. Find meaning in what you are trying to remember. Memories that have importance or significance WE HAVE NO TROUBLE REMEMBERING Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Now let’s talk about storage
Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way, but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

What are the Three Stages of Memory?
Sensory Memory Working Memory (STM) Long-term Memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second Try to remember as many letters as you can Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Sensory Memory A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information. Sperling’s research on Iconic Memory- photographic Eyes take in an exact picture for 10ths of a second Echoic Memory auditory lasts 3-4 seconds

Short Term/Working Memory
The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM. Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically. Need to pay attention to it Holds about 7 (plus or minus 2) items for about 20 seconds. We recall digits better than letters. Short Term Memory Activity

Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM
Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Mnemonic devices- memory aid that uses imagery & organizational devices Maintenance Rehearsal "Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums."

What parts of brain are involved in memory?
The Prefrontal Cortex--Site of Working Memory (STM) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Synaptic Changes Neurons communicate with each other via the neurotransmitter messengers. Experience changes neural networks and strengthens them. Sea Slug study Kandal & Schwatz discovered when a sea slug learns Classical Conditioning it releases more serotonin at certain synapses- These synapses become more efficient transmitting signals Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Storing Memories Long Term-Potentiation LTP
is a persistent increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a chemical synapse. Studies of LTP are often carried out in slices of the hippocampus In other words…they learn to fire together and get better at it…creating a memory.

The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

3 types of amnesia? Infantile amnesia – stuff we don’t remember as babies Anterograde amnesia – Inability to form memories for new information Retrograde amnesia – Inability to remember information previously stored in memory Note: procedural memory seems unaffected! Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Then there is Clive- Both anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

LTM Consolidation – The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories with help from the prefrontal lobes and processed in the hippocampus Remember in May Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Do We Retrieve Memories?
Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How we get information out of memory
Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior Example: hints that a teacher gives you during a test without giving you the answer. Mnemonic devices Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Retrieval Cues What is Priming? – Technique for retrieving memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. Giving hints to remember. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Now pick pick out the seven dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy (this is recognition) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Recall Versus Recognition
you must retrieve the information from your memory No priming or cues fill-in-the blank or essay tests you must identify the target from possible targets multiple-choice tests

déjà vu- already seen Being in a context similar to one we have been in before can trigger déjà vu A current situation may be filled with cues that unconsciously retrieve an earlier, similar experience Possible dual processing is the cause Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Context Matters!!! Flashbulb Memories
Mood Congruent Memory selectively retrieve memories that match our mood State Dependent Memory- recall memory when in the same state-drunk recall when drunk

Flashbulb Memories Continued
Although flashbulb memories are vivid- Misinformation can seep into them Prolonged stress can corrode neural connections and shrink the brain area (hippocampus) Also when sudden hormones are flowing memories can be blocked – Mind Goes Blank Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stress Hormones and memory
When stressed or excited our emotion-triggered stress hormones create more glucose energy for the brain Amygdala also elevates activity and available proteins in the brain . Result: Arousal can sear certain memories into the brain Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Three sins of Forgetting
Absent-mindedness- inattention to detail leads to encoding failure – where are my glasses? Transience- storage decays over time- don’t use it lose it! Who was in your first grade? Blocking- stored information is inaccessible- remembering someone in a movie or Proactive and Retroactive interference - PORN Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Forgetting Calling your new girlfriend by your old girlfriend’s name. Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information. Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information. Cannot remember your old Locker number once you Get a new number

Three Sins of Distortion
Misattribution- confused on the source of the information time or place or person- Bias- memories jaded by beliefs- You see something but you just cannot believe that he/she could do that Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Third Sin of Distortion-Suggestibility
Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion – Becomes a false memory Misinformation effect – The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation: Did Mr. Smith touch your private parts? Giving the suggestion of Mr. Smith makes create a false memory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses:
Recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned Passage of time leads to increase in misremembering information (JFK assassination) Age of the witness matters Confidence in memory is not a sign of accuracy Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Constructive Memory Memories are not always what they seem.
Elizabeth Loftus A constructed memory is a created memory. Misinformation effect

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

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