1. Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (5th Ed)
Chapter 9
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers

2. Memory Memory Flashbulb Memory
persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

3. Memory Memory as Information Processing Encoding similar to a computer
write to file
save to disk
read from disk
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system

4. Memory Storage Retrieval
the retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval
process of getting information out of memory

5. Memory Short term memory Long term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten
Long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

6. Encoding
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic

7. Encoding Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards

8. Encoding Effortful Processing Rehearsal
requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage

9. Encoding Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables Spacing Effect
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effect
distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice

10. Encoding Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 20 15 10 5 88 16 24 32 42 53 64
Number of repetitions of list on day 1

11. Encoding Serial Position Effect
tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

12. Encoding Percentage of words recalled 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1 2 31 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Position of word in list

13. What do we Encode? Semantic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Visual Encoding
encoding of meaning
including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images

14. Encoding Imagery Mnemonics mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids
especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

15. Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

16. Encoding
Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

17. Encoding Encoding (automatic or effortful) Imagery (visual Encoding)
Meaning
(semantic
Organization
Chunks
Hierarchies

18. Encoding Forgetting as encoding failure
Information never enters the memory system
Attention is selective
we cannot attend to everything in our environment
William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing

19. Encoding Forgetting as encoding failure Attention Encoding
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
Long-term
Attention
Encoding
Encoding failure
leads to forgetting

20. Encoding
Forgetting as encoding failure
Which penny is the real thing?

21. Storage- Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
Registration of exact representation of a scene
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

22. Storage- Short Term Memory
limited in duration and capacity
“magical” number 7+/-2

23. Storage- Short Term Memory
Percentage
who recalled
consonants 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)

24. Storage- Long Term Memory
virtually limitless capacity
we don't have to discard old items to remember new items
Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days
initially rapid, then levels off with time

25. Storage- Long Term Memory
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning 60 50 40 30 20 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time in days since learning list

26. Storage- Long Term Memory
How does storage work?
Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learn maze
lesion cortex
test memory
Synaptic changes
Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
some stress hormones boost learning and retention

27. Storage- Long Term Memory
Amnesia- the loss of memory
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory
retention without conscious recollection
motor and cognitive skills
dispositions- conditioning

28. Storage- Long Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus

29. Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Dispositions-
classical and
operant
conditioning
effects
Skills-motor
and cognitive

30. Retrieval Recall Recognition
the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test
Recognition
the ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test

31. Retrieval Relearning Priming
amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information
Priming
activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

32. Retrieval Cues Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall
Guides to where to look for info
Context Effects
memory works better in the context of original learning

33. Retrieval Cues Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 Water/ land
Water/
land
Land/
water
Land/
water
Land/
land
Different contexts for
hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall

34. Retrieval Cues Deja Vu- (French) already seen Mood Congruent Memory
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before"
Mood Congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
State Dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

35. Retrieval Cues
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

36. Retrieval
Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
External
events
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensory
memory
Short-term
Long-term

37. Forgetting-Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information
Proactive(forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

38. Forgetting-Interference
Motivated Forgetting
people unknowingly revise history
Repression
defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Positive Transfer
sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information
knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French

39. Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

40. Forgetting Sensory memory - the senses momentarily
register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are
both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some items
are altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory -
depending on interference, retrieval cues
moods and motives, some things get
retrieved, some don’t

41. Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

42. Memory Construction
People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions
Imagining events can create false memories
Children's eyewitness recall
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some innocent people suffer false accusations
Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony

43. Memory Construction Memories of Abuse False Memory Syndrome
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

44. Memory Construction Most people can agree on the following:
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are unreliable
Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

45. Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or actively pondering material
Make material personally meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words- something already stored
make up story
chunk-acronyms

46. Improve Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
rehearse
determine what you do not yet know