1. Chapter 5 Formulating the research design

2. The Business Research Process

3. The Process of Research Design
Research choices – single method, multi-methods, mixed methods
Research strategies – experiment, survey, case study, action research, grounded theory, ethnography, archival
Time horizons – longitudinal vs cross-sectional

4. Research Design and Tactics
The research onion
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.1 The research ‘onion’

5. The research design needs
Clear objectives derived from the research question
To specify sources of data collection
To consider constraints and ethical issues
Valid reasons for your choice of design

6. Classification of the research purpose
Exploratory research
Descriptive studies
Explanatory studies
Causal research - to identify cause and effect relationships (inferences).

7. Uncertainty Influences The Type Of Research
CAUSAL OR
DESCRIPTIVE
COMPLETELY
CERTAIN
ABSOLUTE
AMBIGUITY
EXPLORATORY

8. EXHIBIT 4.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Business Research
Uncertainty Influences the Type of Research Conducted

9. Classification of the research purpose
eed: exploratory, explanatory, descriptive
Exploratory is:
- to find out what is happening,
- to seek new insights,
- to ask questions
- to assess phenomena in a new light
Three principals to conduct exploratory research:
- a search of the literature
- interviewing ‘experts’ in the subject
- conducting focus group interviews

10. Classification of the research purpose
Exploratory Research:
undertaken with the aim of clarifying ambiguous problems
general problems usually known but not sufficiently understood
the purpose is to get more information, not to uncover specific courses of action (subsequent research)
Determining a specific course of action to follow is not a
purpose of exploratory research!
Example: Child-Care support programme for employees

11. Classification of the research purpose
Exploratory or qualitative approaches should be used when
There is little theoretical or research literature about a particular situation.
When there is literature about this problem, but we know little about how a particular population group experiences a problem.
When you want to know about culture values and norms
When you want to develop some new ideas about how a problem should be addressed based on hunches or practice experience.

12. A Note on Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a means for acquiring a deeper and hence more useful understanding of a business or management problem
Exploratory research does not intend to answer research questions conclusively, rather, it is a preliminary step towards undertaking more substantive research
Exploratory research usually provides qualitative data, not quantitative data
Exploratory research has serious limitations which cannot be overlooked or ignored by any serious researcher. It is subjective and contains two dangers:
(1) A promising idea may be rejected because exploratory data shows it to be ‘undesirable’ and
(2) ideas which appear promising in the exploratory stage may be accepted without undertaking further research to establish their desirability

13. The Purposes of Exploratory Research
Situation Diagnosis – Analyze the dimensions of the research problem and set the stage for subsequent research and priorities
Example: What are current important issues of employee concern or what are the possible explanations for decreasing employee motivation?
Screening – Exploratory research is used to select the best possible alternatives given the existence of constraints such as budget limitations
Discovering New Ideas – Through its techniques, exploratory research can help generate new, previously unthought of ideas which may interest managers
Example: Employees suggest convenient ways of increasing factory production or propose new products and services

14. Tools and Techniques of Exploratory Research (1)
Concept Testing – This is about testing something that is being used as a proxy for a new (or modified) product, service or program
Test persons are usually presented with a stimulus or description of an idea and are asked if they like it, would use it etc.
Concept testing can help an organization conserve resources by not wasting them on schemes shown to be unpopular through concept testing
Example: The Del Monte corporation used concept testing to determine whether consumers would be interested in purchasing unrefrigerated, shelf-stable yoghurt

15. Tools and Techniques of Exploratory Research (2)
Experience Surveys – Conversation or interviews with knowledgeable persons and experts, inside or outside the organization, who have some previous experience with the problem area in question
Are sometimes called expert interviews or key informant surveys.
Even though the term survey is in the name, it is not a closed-ended, structured survey. Rather, experience surveys are interviews designed to extract as much information as possible from the expert’s knowledge.
Broad questions guide the discussion.

16. Experience Surveys Several questions that could be used:
What is being done?
What has been tried in the past with or without success?
How have things changed?
Who is involved in the decisions?
What problem areas can be seen?
Whom can we count on to assist or participate in the research?

17. Tools and Techniques of Exploratory Research (2)
Experience Surveys – Conversation or interviews with knowledgeable persons and experts, inside or outside the organization, who have some previous experience with the problem area in question
Secondary Data Analysis (Literature Search) – Analysis of already existing data and literature on a similar problem field can yield clues and interesting background information on the problem field under study
Within secondary data exploration, researchers should start first with an organization’s own data archives. The second source of secondary data is published documents prepared by authors outside the sponsor organization.

18. Tools and Techniques of Exploratory Research (3)
Case Studies – Using information and experiences gained from a similar problem situation
Advantages - An entire organization can be investigated in detail and considerable information can be obtained from interviewees
Disadvantages - Potential difficulty in acquiring the cooperation of, and information from, the person or organization under study, and also because generalizing can be counterproductive.
Moreover, to gain the maximum benefit from case studies requires very alert, creative, flexible, intelligent and motivated interviewers

19. Tools and Techniques of Exploratory Research (4)
Pilot Studies – A small-scale research project which uses sampling – without the normally rigorous scientific standards – to generate primary data
The primary data generated from pilot studies are collected from specific groups (e.g. employees, consumers, students, voters) and not from experts or from a case situation
Major components of pilot studies are focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth studies

20. Tools and Techniques of Exploratory Research (5)
Focus Group Interviews – This is an unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of usually six to ten persons, and presided over by a moderator or interviewer
Focus group interviews are not a question-and-answer session, rather the group members discuss a topic in some detail in an open and candid manner
Focus Group Interviews allow group members to express their true feelings, anxieties, and frustrations, and to express the depth of their convictions in their own words
Focus group interviews help in screening and refining concepts

21. Tools and Techniques of Exploratory Research (6)
Focus Group Interview Advantages – Flexible, brief, easy to execute, quickly analyzed, inexpensive, useful insights can be gained, responses which normally wouldn’t come out in a survey come out in a focus group interview
Focus Group Interview Disadvantages – small discussion group is not “representative”, one or a few individuals may dominate the discussion to the exclusion of others, confusion may arise and arguments may erupt if group too heterogenous, moderator may not be sufficiently trained

22. Commonly Used Exploratory Techniques
Secondary Data Analysis
Experience Surveys
Focus Groups

23. Classification of the research purpose
eed: exploratory, explanatory, descriptive
Descriptive is:
- the researcher observes and then describes what was observed.
- to portray an accurate profile of persons, events or situations.
- an extension of, or a forerunner to a exploratory/explanatory research

24. Classification of the research purpose
Descriptive Research:
undertaken with the aim of determining the characteristics of a population or phenomenon
Previous knowledge of problem exists
High degree of precision or accuracy required
Examples:
Who are the main consumers of organic foods?
How many students read the prescribed course literature?
Where do most holiday-makers travelling overseas go?
When do petrol stations tend to raise their prices?

25. Classification of the research purpose
Descriptive approaches should be used when:
You just want to describe what is happening in a particular situation.
When there are some theories about the situation or group of people studied and you can develop specific research questions and responses.
When you do not want to test a formal hypothesis – for example you might want to do a survey of peoples attitudes or beliefs.

26. Descriptive Studies
When?
How much?
What?
Who?
Where?

27. Descriptive Studies Descriptions of population characteristics
Estimates of frequency of characteristics
In contrast to exploratory studies, more formalized studies are typically structured with clearly stated hypotheses or investigative questions. Formal studies serve a variety of research objectives such as those listed in the slide.
The third objective, discovery of variable associations, is sometimes labeled a correlational study, which is a subset of descriptive studies. Correlation is the relationship by which two or more variables change together, such that systematic changes in one accompany systematic changes in the other.
Discovery of associations among variables

28. Classification of the research purpose
eed: exploratory, explanatory, descriptive
Explanatory (causal) is:
- to establish causal relationships between variables
- to analyze the quantitative data to prove a relationship
- or: to analyze the qualitative data to explain a reason of an issue

29. Classification of the research purpose
Explanatory (Causal) Research:
undertaken with the aim of identifying cause and effect relationships amongst variables
are normally preceeded by exploratory and descriptive research studies
Often difficult to determine because of the influence of other variables (concommitant Variation and the presence of other hidden variables)

30. Classification of the research purpose
Quantitative (Explanatory research) should be conducted when
When you want to test an hypothesis.
When there is sufficient theoretical literature that can be used to identify assumptions and construct hypotheses.
When you have enough participants to construct experimental and control groups or can reasonably conduct pre and post tests.
When you can link theories or specific actions with outcomes.

31. Experiment Action research
Research Strategies
Experiment Action research
Grounded theory Survey
Ethnography Case study
Archival research

32. An experiment will involve
Research Strategies
An experiment will involve
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis
Selection of samples from know populations
Random allocation of samples
Introduction of planned intervention
Measurement on a small number of dependent variables
Control of all other variables

33. Experiment Classical deductive research
Is generally used to find causal relationships
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis
Recruiting of subjects (not in large number)
Allocation of subjects to different experimental conditions
Introduction of planned change on one or more of the variables
Measurement on small number of the variables
Control of the other variables

34. Experiments Experiment Experimental variable Manipulation
A carefully controlled study in which the researcher manipulates a proposed cause and observes any corresponding change in the proposed effect.
Experimental variable
Represents the proposed cause and is controlled by the researcher by manipulating it.
Manipulation
The researcher alters the level of the variable in specific increments.

35. A classic experiment strategy
Research Strategies
A classic experiment strategy
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.2 A classic experiment strategy

36. Research Strategies Survey: key features Popular in business research
Perceived as authoritative موثوقة
Allows collection of quantative data
Data can be analysed quantitatively
Samples need to be representative
Gives the researcher independence
Structured observation and interviews can be used

37. Survey Usually associated with the deductive approach
Allow the collection of a large amount of data from a sizable population in an economical way
Questionnaire is the most popular data collection method
Designing and testing questionnaire is the most importing part of a survey research

38. Research questions appropriate for a survey
Self-reported beliefs or behaviors.
Ask many things, measure many variables and test several hypotheses in a single survey
Behavior
Attitudes/beliefs/opinions
Expectations
Self-classification
Knowledge

39. Case Study: key features
Research Strategies
Case Study: key features
Provides a rich understanding of a real life context
Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data
A case study can be categorised in four ways
and based on two dimensions:
single case v. multiple case
holistic case v. embedded case
Yin (2003)

40. Case study
A strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence
Inductive research
Data are collected from interviews, focus groups and so on.
Study one case or a few cases ( comparative case studies )

41. Action research: key features
Research Strategies
Action research: key features
Research IN action - not ON action
Involves practitioners in the research
The researcher becomes part of the organisation
Promotes change within the organisation
Can have two distinct focii (Schein, 1999) –
the aim of the research and the needs of the sponsor

42. The action research spiral
Research Strategies
The action research spiral
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.3 The action research spiral

43. Grounded theory: key features
Research Strategies
Grounded theory: key features
Theory is built through induction and deduction
Helps to predict and explain behaviour
Develops theory from data generated by
observations
Is an interpretative process, not a logico-deductive one
Based on Suddaby (2006)

44. Grounded theory Best example of inductive research
Theory developed inductively from a corpus of data
Data collection starts without the formation of an initial theoretical framework

45. Ethnography: key features
Research Strategies
Ethnography: key features
Aims to describe and explain the social world inhabited by the researcher
Takes place over an extended time period
Is naturalistic
Involves extended participant observation

46. Ethnography Firmly rooted in the inductive approach
comes from the discipline of social and cultural anthropology
Researchers have to immerse themselves in the life of people they study
Main difference with case study is the extent to which the researcher immerses in the life of the social group under study
A significant amount of data are collected through observation
Very time consuming

47. Archival research: key features
Research Strategies
Archival research: key features
Uses administrative records and documents as the principal sources of data
Allows research questions focused on the past
Is constrained by the nature of the records and documents

48. The role of the practitioner-researcher
Research Strategies
The role of the practitioner-researcher
Key features
Research access is more easily available
The researcher knows the organisation
Has the disadvantage of familiarity
The researcher is likely to their own assumptions
and preconceptions
The dual role requires careful negotiation

49. Multiple research methods
Research choices
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.4 Research choices

50. Multiple research methods
Reasons for using mixed method designs:
(Table 5.1 )
Triangulation
Facilitation
Complementarity
Generality
Aid interpretation
Study different aspects
Solving a puzzle
Source: developed from Bryman (2006)

51. Using multi-methods
Different methods can be used for different objectives in a study
Enables triangulation
The use of different data collection methods within one study in order to ensure that the data are telling you what you think they are telling you

52. Select the appropriate time horizon
Time Horizons
Select the appropriate time horizon
Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal studies

53. Credibility of research findings
Important considerations
Reliability – extent of data collection & analysis will yield constant findings (subject bias, observer error, observer bias)
Validity – are findings really what they appear to be about
Generalisability – (external validity), are findings equally applicable to other research findings
Logic leaps and false assumptions – research population, data collection, data interpretation, conclusion.

54. Research design ethics
Remember
‘The research design should not subject the research population to embarrassment, harm or other material disadvantage’
Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

55. The Topical Scope Statistical Study Breadth Population inferences
The topical scope refers to the breadth (what properties will be measured) and depth (at what level will the properties be measured) of the study in question.
Statistical Study
Breadth
Population inferences
Quantitative
Generalizable findings
Case Study
Depth
Detail
Qualitative
Multiple sources of information

56. The Topical Scope
A statistical study is designed for breadth rather than depth. It attempts to capture a population’s characteristics by making inferences from a sample’s characteristics and then testing resulting hypotheses.
A case study places more emphasis on full contextual analysis of a few events or conditions and their interrelations. Case studies rely on qualitative data and emphasize the use of results for insight into problem-solving, evaluation, and strategy.
While case studies are not considered “scientific,” they do play an important role in challenging theory, providing new hypotheses, and offering new ideas on constructs.

57. Research projects can be categorised as Research projects may be
Summary: Chapter 5
Research design turns a research question and objectives into a project that considers
Strategies Choices Time horizons
Research projects can be categorised as
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
Research projects may be
Cross-sectional Longitudinal

58. Important considerations
Summary: Chapter 5
Important considerations
The main research strategies may combined in the same project
The opportunities provided by using multiple methods
The validity and reliability of results
Access and ethical considerations