1. Control Charts for Attributes
p-chart: A chart used for controlling the proportion of defective services or products generated by the process.
p = p(1 – p)/n
Where
n = sample size
p = central line on the chart, which can be either the historical average population proportion defective or a target value.
Control limits are: UCLp = p+zp and LCLp = p−zp –
z = normal deviate (number of standard deviations from the average)

2. Hometown Bank
Example
The operations manager of the booking services department of Hometown Bank is concerned about the number of wrong customer account numbers recorded by Hometown personnel.
Each week a random sample of 2,500 deposits is taken, and the number of incorrect account numbers is recorded. The results for the past 12 weeks are shown in the following table.
Is the booking process out of statistical control? Use three-sigma control limits. 2

3. Using a p-Chart to monitor a process
Hometown Bank
Using a p-Chart to monitor a process
n = 2500
Sample Wrong Proportion
Number Account # Defective
Total
p =
147
12(2500) =
p = p(1 – p)/n
p = (1 – )/2500
p =
UCLp = (0.0014) =
LCLp = – 3(0.0014) =

4. Using a p-Chart to monitor a process
Hometown Bank
Using a p-Chart to monitor a process
Example

5. In class Problem

6. Control Charts Two types of error are possible with control charts
A type I error occurs when a process is thought to be out of control when in fact it is not
A type II error occurs when a process is thought to be in control when it is actually out of statistical control
These errors can be controlled by the choice of control limits

7. Process Capability
Process capability is the ability of the process to meet the design specifications for a service or product.
Nominal value is a target for design specifications.
Tolerance is an allowance above or below the nominal value.

8. Process Capability 20 25 30 Upper specification Lower Nominal value
Process distribution
Process is capable 18

9. Process Capability 20 25 30 Upper specification Lower Nominal value
Process distribution
Process is not capable 18

10. Process Capability Ratio, Cp
Process capability ratio, Cp, is the tolerance width divided by 6 standard deviations (process variability).
Cp =
Upper specification - Lower specification 6 33

11. Process Capability Index, Cpk
Process Capability Index, Cpk, is an index that measures the potential for a process to generate defective outputs relative to either upper or lower specifications.
Cpk = Minimum of
Upper specification – x 3s
x – Lower specification , =
We take the minimum of the two ratios because it gives the worst-case situation. 33

12. Intensive Care Lab Example
The intensive care unit lab process has an average turnaround time of 26.2 minutes and a standard deviation of 1.35 minutes.
The nominal value for this service is 25 minutes with an upper specification limit of 30 minutes and a lower specification limit of 20 minutes.
The administrator of the lab wants to have three-sigma performance for her lab. Is the lab process capable of this level of performance?
Upper specification = 30 minutes
Lower specification = 20 minutes
Average service = 26.2 minutes
 = 1.35 minutes 33

13. Intensive Care Lab Assessing Process Capability
Example
Upper specification = 30 minutes
Lower specification = 20 minutes
Average service = 26.2 minutes
 = 1.35 minutes
Cpk = Minimum of
Upper specification – x 3s
x – Lower specification , =
Cpk = Minimum of
26.2 – 20.0
3(1.35) ,
30.0 – 26.2
Cpk = Minimum of , 0.94
= 0.94
Process Capability Index 33

14. Intensive Care Lab Assessing Process Capability
Example
Cp =
Upper specification - Lower specification 6
Cp =
6(1.35)
= 1.23
Process Capability Ratio
Does not meet 3 (1.00 Cpk) target due to a shift in mean (Note variability is ok since Cp is over 1.0)
Before Process Modification
Upper specification = 30.0 minutes Lower specification = 20.0 minutes
Average service = 26.2 minutes
 = minutes Cpk = Cp = 1.23 33

15. In Class Problem

16. In Class Problem

17. Effects of Reducing Variability on Process Capability
Lower
specification
Mean
Upper
Nominal value
Six sigma
Four sigma
Two sigma 22

18. What it means to operate at 6-sigma
Range
Population in range
Expected frequency outside range
Approx. frequency for daily event
μ ± 1σ
1 in 3
Twice a week
μ ± 2σ
1 in 22
Every three weeks
μ ± 3σ
1 in 370
Yearly
μ ± 4σ
1 in 15,787
Every 43 years (twice in a lifetime)
μ ± 5σ
1 in 1,744,278
Every 5,000 years (once in history)
μ ± 6σ
1 in 506,842,372
Every 1.5 million years

19. Six Sigma 3.4 defects per million Cpk = 2
Impact of number of parts or production steps on yield:
6 sigma 4 sigma 3 sigma
% 99% 99%
% 97% 71%
% 94% 50%
% 54% 0%

20. Designing in 6-sigma Reduce the number of parts in a product
Reduce the number of steps in a process

21. Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a comprehensive and flexible system for achieving, sustaining, and maximizing business success by minimizing defects and variability in processes.
It relies heavily on the principles and tools of TQM.
It is driven by a close understanding of customer needs; the disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical analysis; and diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing business processes.

22. Six Sigma Improvement Model
Define Determine the current process characteristics critical to customer satisfaction and identify any gaps.
Measure Quantify the work the process does that affects the gap.
Analyze Use data on measures to perform process analysis.
Improve Modify or redesign existing methods to meet the new performance objectives.
Control Monitor the process to make sure high performance levels are maintained.

23. Six Sigma Implementation
Top Down Commitment from corporate leaders.
Measurement Systems to Track Progress
Tough Goal Setting through benchmarking best-in-class companies.
Education: Employees must be trained in the “whys” and “how-tos” of quality.
Communication: Successes are as important to understanding as failures.
Customer Priorities: Never lose sight of the customer’s priorities.

24. Six Sigma Education
Green Belt: An employee who achieved the first level of training in a Six Sigma program and spends part of his or her time teaching and helping teams with their projects.
Black Belt: An employee who reached the highest level of training in a Six Sigma program and spends all of his or her time teaching and leading teams involved in Six Sigma projects.
Master Black Belt: Full-time teachers and mentors to several black belts.

25. International Quality Documentation Standards
ISO
9000
A set of standards governing documentation of a quality program.
ISO
14000
Documentation standards that require participating companies to keep track of their raw materials use and their generation, treatment, and disposal of hazardous wastes.

26. Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
Named after the late secretary of commerce, a strong proponent of enhancing quality as a means of reducing the trade deficit. The award promotes, recognizes, and publicizes quality strategies and achievements.
Category 1 ─ Leadership 120 points
Category 2 ─ Strategic Planning 85 points
Category 3 ─ Customer and Market Focus 85 points
Category 4 ─ Measurement, Analysis, and
Knowledge Management 90 points
5. Category 5 ─ Human Resource Focus 85 points
6. Category 6 ─ Process Management 85 points
7. Category 7 ─ Business Results 450 points