1. Identify the following organic molecules

2. Organic molecules have four common characteristics:
KEY CONCEPT Carbon-based molecules are the foundation of life.
Organic molecules have four common characteristics:
First, they are all carbon based, meaning they all contain carbon.
They are formed from just a few elements which join together to form small molecules which join together, or bond, to form large molecules
The third characteristic of all organic molecules is that each is kind of organic molecule is built from a single type of building block..
When these building blocks are joined together, they form a large molecule (polymer), just as bricks joined together form a wall. For example, sugars join together form a carbohydrate.

3. Carbon atoms have unique bonding properties.
Carbon forms covalent bonds with up to four other atoms, including other carbon atoms.
Characteristic of all organic molecules is that their form determines their function.
Carbon-based molecules have three general types of structures.
straight chain
branched chain
ring

4. Many carbon-based molecules are made of many small subunits bonded together. Macromolecules are polymers , built from monomers
Monomers are the individual subunits.
The repeating units that serve as the building blocks of the polymer
Polymers are made of many monomers.
Polymer is a longer molecule consisting of many similar and identical building block linked by covalent bonds
Polymerization, any process in which relatively small molecules, called monomers, combine chemically to produce a very large chainlike or network molecule, called a polymer.

6. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides or simple sugars ; these are the monomers in which more complex carbohydrates are built.
Carbohydrate macromolecules are polymers called polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, and cellulose )

7. Both Plants and Animals store sugars for later use in the form of storage polysaccharides
Energy storage for plants and animals
Plants store starch , which a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within their cellular structure known as plastids. (Hydrolysis breaks down the bonds between the glucose monomers )
Animals store a polysaccharide called glycogen , a polymer of glucose.(this storage cannot sustain an animal for a long time)

8. Carbohydrates can be broken down to provide energy for cells.
Some carbohydrates are part of cell structure.
Intercellular activities including infection by bacteria and viruses, communication among cells of lower eukaryotes, specific binding of sperm to egg
Polymer (starch)
Starch is a polymer of glucose monomers that often has a branched structure.
Polymer (cellulose)
Cellulose(constituent of the cell walls of plants ) is a polymer of glucose monomers that has a straight, rigid structure
monomer

9. Lipids
Lipids are nonpolar molecules that include fats, oils, and cholesterol.
Lipids are the one class of biological molecules , that do not include true polymers
Lipids are soluble (dissolve) in oil but are insoluble (don’t dissolve) in water. When mixed with water, the lipid will float on top to form a separate layer.
Many contain carbon chains called fatty acids.
Fats and oils (triglycerides) contain fatty acids bonded to glycerol.

10. Fats and oils have different types of fatty acids.
saturated fatty acids
unsaturated fatty acids ALL IN THE BONDS

11. Proteins
Proteins are made of Amino Acids bonded together in a chain (called Polypeptides) connected though Peptide Bonds
There are 20 different Amino Acids
A protein may be made of one or more polypeptides (chains of amino acids)
The sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s unique three-dimensional structure
A protein’s structure determines its function
Protein functions include structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances
4 levels of protein structure

12. The Miller-Urey experiment ( 1952 )
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey carried out some experiments in 1952 and published their results in The aim was to see if substances now made by living things could be formed in the conditions thought to have existed on the early Earth.
The two scientists sealed a mixture of water, ammonia, methane and hydrogen in a sterile flask. The mixture was heated to evaporate water to produce water vapor. Electric sparks were passed through the mixture of water vapor and gases, simulating lightning. After a week, contents were analyzed.
Amino acids, the building blocks for proteins, were found.

13. Enzyme
An enzyme is a globular protein which acts as a biological catalyst by speeding up the rate of a chemical reaction. (Enzymes are biological catalysts. Catalysts lower the activation energy for reactions)
Enzymes are not changed or consumed by the reactions they catalyse and thus can be reused.
Enzymes are typically named after the molecules they react with (called the substrate) and end with the suffix ‘-ase’.
The active site is the region on the surface of the enzyme which binds to the substrate molecule
The active site and the substrate complement each other in terms of both shape and chemical properties. Only a specific substrate is capable of binding to a particular enzyme’s active site

14. Enzyme How ENZYMES Work? 1. Enzymes have a specific shape.
2. Part of the enzyme matches the shape of the molecule to be reacted called the substrate.
3. The part of the enzyme that binds to the substrate is the active site.
4. When the substrate and enzyme bind temporarily, an enzyme-substrate complex is formed.
5. The activation energy(the minimum quantity of energy that the reacting species must possess in order to undergo a specified reaction.) needed for the reaction to occur is reduced.
6. After the reaction is complete, the substrate has formed a new product and the enzyme is released to be reused.

15. Enzymes
The activity of an Enzyme is affected by its environmental conditions. Changing these alter the rate of reaction caused by the enzyme. In nature, organisms adjust the conditions of their enzymes to produce an Optimum rate of reaction, where necessary, or they may have enzymes which are adapted to function well in extreme conditions where they live. Temperature
Low temperatures result in insufficient thermal energy for the activation of an enzyme-catalysed reaction to proceed
Increasing the temperature will increase the speed and motion of both enzyme and substrate, resulting in higher enzyme activity
This is because a higher kinetic energy will result in more frequent collisions between the enzymes and substrates

16. pH - Acidity and Basicity
pH measures the Acidity and Basicity of a solution. It is a measure of the Hydrogen Ion (H+) concentration, and therefore a good indicator of the Hydroxide Ion (OH-) concentration. It ranges from pH1 to pH14. Lower pH values mean higher H+ concentrations and lower OH- concentrations.
Changing the pH will alter the charge of the enzyme, which in turn will alter protein solubility and overall shape
Changing the shape or charge of the active site will diminish its ability to bind the substrate, abrogating enzyme function
Enzymes have an optimal pH (may differ between enzymes) and moving outside this range diminishes enzyme activity (Human Blood : )
Small changes in pH above or below the Optimum do not cause a permanent change to the enzyme, since the bonds can be reformed. However, extreme changes in pH can cause enzymes to Denature and permanently lose their function.

17. Enzyme Concentration
Increasing Enzyme Concentration will increase the rate of reaction, as more enzymes will be colliding with substrate molecules.
However, this too will only have an effect up to a certain concentration, where the Enzyme Concentration is no longer the limiting factor.

18. Enzymes can be denatured.
The important part of an enzyme is called the active site. This is where specific molecules bind to the enzyme and the reaction occurs.
Anything that changes the shape of the active site stops the enzyme from working.
The shape of the active site is affected by pH. This is why enzymes will only work at a specific pH, as well as a specific temperature. Change the pH and the enzyme stops working.
Increasing the temperature to 60°C ( 140 F) will cause a permanent change to the shape of the active site.

19. Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information
There are two types of nucleic acids:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Nucleic acids are polymers made of monomers called nucleotides
Polymer: Nucleic Acid
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
zX1k8M
Nitrogenous
base
Phosphate
group
Sugar
(pentose)
(b) Nucleotide
a) Nucleic acid

21. DNA and RNA- Nitrogen Bases
There are 5 nitrogen bases
4 are used in DNA
4 are used in RNA
Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Adenine (A) are found in BOTH DNA and RNA
Thymine (T) is ONLY found in DNA
Uracil (U) is ONLY found in RNA
These bases must pair up correctly to function
The strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases
C-G (Cytosine and Guanine )
A-T, ( Thymine ) or A-U for RNA (Uracil and Adenine )
Depending on if it’s DNA or RNA