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Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM): The case of CAMPFIRE
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CBNRM: The concept Disenchantment with fortress conservation (fences and fines: alienation of people from natural resources) Hence: the subsidiarity principle Governance of economic processes (resource use and allocation) Benefit sharing Property rights Local political arrangements (institutional arrangements) Devolution: shifts resource governance, responsibility and benefits to the local level Bottom-up and participatory approach to conservation and local development (or rather, participatory resource management and allocation)
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Property rights: Schlager & Ostrom 1992
Access: The right to enter a defined physical property. Withdrawal: The right to obtain the "products" of a resource (e.g., catch fish, appropriate water, etc.) Management: The right to regulate internal use patterns and transform the resource by making improvements. Exclusion: The right to determine who will have an access right, and how that right may be transferred. Alienation: The right to sell or lease either or both of the above collective choice rights
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What is CAMPFIRE? Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources Co-management and benefit sharing between Rural District Councils (RDCs), safari operators and the community Local wildlife management committees (evolution from democratic elections to councillors as automatic chairperson of the local CAMPFIRE committees Traditional leaders not included although chiefs are ex-officio members of the RDC (by virtue of being customary custodians of natural resources Spiritual leaders (mhondoro) completely out
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Conceptual evolution of CAMPFIRE: Key events
1975: Parks and Wildlife Act enacted Act gives authority to private land owners of white origin to exploit game for profit, but leaves out black agropastoralists. Wildlife increases on private land. Human-wildlife conflict and negative attitudes to wildlife by black agropastoralists persist. 1978 Wildlife Industries New Development for All (WINDFALL) programme Culling of meat from parks and distribution to neighbouring communities as a strategy to mitigate human-wildlife conflict improves attitudes towards wildlife. Revenue to district councils with no local participation, decision making and community ownership. 1982 Parks and Wildlife Act amended The amendment makes provision for authority to be granted to district councils to manage wildlife in rural areas on behalf of the communities.
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CAMPFIRE: Conceptual evolution
1984 CAMPFIRE conceived by Department of Parks and Wildlife Management Target is: collective ownership with defined rights of access to natural resources, appropriate and legitimate institutions, technical and financial assistance 1989 Authority granted to the first two Rural District Councils Implementation of CAMPFIRE. Local participation but devolution stops at Rural District Council level. 2005 Direct payment system introduced in CAMPFIRE Communities receives income due to them from the safari operator directly into a community bank account, bypassing the Rural District Councils (another level of elite capture of income)
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Core issues Resourcing Rural District Councils (aborted devolution): Village Companies rejected, appropriate authority given to Rural District Councils (RDCs) Community (defining community): Insiders and outsiders e.g. e.g. CAMPFIRE is not for Ndebele Immigrants (Dzingirai 2003); Why are lions killing us? (Matema and Andersson 2015) Benefit distribution (elite capture) Development or conservation? The blind spot: Human-wildlife conflict mitigation approach
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Multi-stakeholders and different values (Matema and Andersson 2015): Why are lions killing us?
Livestock keepers: Rural livelihoods 114 livestock killed in January 2010 4 people killed in three weeks Parks and Wildlife Management Authority Conservation Tourism Safari operator Economic: trophy hunting Traditional Leaders (Chiefs , Village heads) Symbolism Power through Traditional Leader’s Act Lion conservation Different people Different ethnicities: Doma, Korekore, Chikunda and Karanga Migrants and autochthons Symbolism and worldviews Traditional leaders (Mhondoro) Symbolism Power: though no legal recognition in natural resources management Rural District Council Power: District Land Authority And Appropriate Authority for CAMPFIRE Economic: trophy hunting
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CAMPFIRE is dead: Post-CAMPFIRE (CSOTs)
Main argument: CAMPFIRE not good for conservation & discontent with recentralisation of management decisions CBNRM and indigenisation Attempts to evoke the Indigenisation and economic and empowerment Act in natural resource management in Mbire district: The chief’s idea of a community-based game ranch Rejected on the basis of institutional arrangements (Chief, RDC and DA should play oversight role): hidden economic and power interests and community marginalisation Empowerment as economic investment Will CSOTs replace CAMPFIRE?: an alternative model
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