1. Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM): The case of CAMPFIRE

2. CBNRM: The concept
Disenchantment with fortress conservation (fences and fines: alienation of people from natural resources)
Hence: the subsidiarity principle
Governance of economic processes (resource use and allocation)
Benefit sharing
Property rights
Local political arrangements (institutional arrangements)
Devolution: shifts resource governance, responsibility and benefits to the local level
Bottom-up and participatory approach to conservation and local development (or rather, participatory resource management and allocation)

3. Property rights: Schlager & Ostrom 1992
Access: The right to enter a defined physical property.
Withdrawal: The right to obtain the "products" of a resource (e.g., catch fish, appropriate water, etc.)
Management: The right to regulate internal use patterns and transform the resource by making improvements.
Exclusion: The right to determine who will have an access right, and how that right may be transferred.
Alienation: The right to sell or lease either or both of the above collective choice rights

4. What is CAMPFIRE?
Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
Co-management and benefit sharing between Rural District Councils (RDCs), safari operators and the community
Local wildlife management committees (evolution from democratic elections to councillors as automatic chairperson of the local CAMPFIRE committees
Traditional leaders not included although chiefs are ex-officio members of the RDC (by virtue of being customary custodians of natural resources
Spiritual leaders (mhondoro) completely out

5. Conceptual evolution of CAMPFIRE: Key events
1975: Parks and Wildlife Act enacted
Act gives authority to private land owners of white origin to exploit game for profit, but leaves out black agropastoralists. Wildlife increases on private land. Human-wildlife conflict and negative attitudes to wildlife by black agropastoralists persist.
1978
Wildlife Industries New Development for All (WINDFALL) programme
Culling of meat from parks and distribution to neighbouring communities as a strategy to mitigate human-wildlife conflict improves attitudes towards wildlife. Revenue to district councils with no local participation, decision making and community ownership.
1982
Parks and Wildlife Act amended
The amendment makes provision for authority to be granted to district councils to manage wildlife in rural areas on behalf of the communities.

6. CAMPFIRE: Conceptual evolution
1984
CAMPFIRE conceived by Department of Parks and Wildlife Management
Target is: collective ownership with defined rights of access to natural resources, appropriate and legitimate institutions, technical and financial assistance
1989
Authority granted to the first two Rural District Councils
Implementation of CAMPFIRE. Local participation but devolution stops at Rural District Council level.
2005
Direct payment system introduced in CAMPFIRE
Communities receives income due to them from the safari operator directly into a community bank account, bypassing the Rural District Councils (another level of elite capture of income)

7. Core issues
Resourcing Rural District Councils (aborted devolution): Village Companies rejected, appropriate authority given to Rural District Councils (RDCs)
Community (defining community): Insiders and outsiders e.g. e.g. CAMPFIRE is not for Ndebele Immigrants (Dzingirai 2003); Why are lions killing us? (Matema and Andersson 2015)
Benefit distribution (elite capture)
Development or conservation?
The blind spot: Human-wildlife conflict mitigation approach

8. Multi-stakeholders and different values (Matema and Andersson 2015): Why are lions killing us?
Livestock keepers: Rural livelihoods
114 livestock killed in January 2010
4 people killed in three weeks
Parks and Wildlife
Management Authority
Conservation
Tourism
Safari operator
Economic: trophy hunting
Traditional Leaders (Chiefs , Village heads)
Symbolism
Power through Traditional Leader’s Act
Lion conservation
Different people
Different ethnicities:
Doma, Korekore, Chikunda and Karanga
Migrants and autochthons
Symbolism and worldviews
Traditional leaders
(Mhondoro)
Symbolism
Power: though no legal recognition in natural resources management
Rural District Council
Power: District Land Authority
And Appropriate Authority for
CAMPFIRE
Economic: trophy hunting

9. CAMPFIRE is dead: Post-CAMPFIRE (CSOTs)
Main argument: CAMPFIRE not good for conservation & discontent with recentralisation of management decisions
CBNRM and indigenisation
Attempts to evoke the Indigenisation and economic and empowerment Act in natural resource management in Mbire district: The chief’s idea of a community-based game ranch
Rejected on the basis of institutional arrangements (Chief, RDC and DA should play oversight role): hidden economic and power interests and community marginalisation
Empowerment as economic investment
Will CSOTs replace CAMPFIRE?: an alternative model