1. Ancient Roots of Taoism
Jeff Richey, Ph.D.
REL 213
Taoism and the Arts of China
Berea College
Short Term 2004

2. ECOLOGY AND SOCIETY IN EARLY CHINA
Large population
Agricultural society
Climactic extremes (hot summers, freezing winters, regular floods)
Relative isolation (bounded by Pacific, Himalayas, deserts)

3. CULTURAL ORIENTATIONS
Intense pressure for social harmony
Ideal unity of natural and social orders
Confidence in human ability to discern and manipulate environment
Ethnocentrism and bouts of xenophobia

4. EARLY CHINESE RELIGION
“Oracle bones” used in divination rituals to communicate with ancestral spirits
Shang-di 上帝 (“The Lord on High”) =
divine ancestor of Shang 商 rulers (c BCE)
later identified with Tian 天 (“Heaven”), deity of Zhou 周 rulers (c BCE)
Dao 道 (“Way”) = normative cosmic pattern

5. EARLY CHINESE COSMOLOGY
Two hypotheses:
Agonistic relationship: humans versus earth, Tian, other extrahuman forces [Puett]
Triangular relationship: humans, earth, Tian share harmonious, correlative cosmos [Chang, Mote]
In both, great emphasis on human agency in sustaining cosmic order

6. THE CRISIS IN THE ZHOU ORDER (c. 771-221 BCE)
After 770 BCE, Zhou rule was weakened by foreign invasions and internal divisions
BCE: Chunqiu 春秋 (“Spring and Autumn”) period of unstable feudal coalition
BCE: Zhanguo 戰國 (“Warring States”) period of constant civil war among feudal lords competing to impose rule and restore unity of Zhou territory
The Baijia百家 (“Hundred Teachings”) arise in response to cultural crisis and “free market” for political, philosophical, and ritual expertise

7. THE SCHOOL OF ZHUANGZI, c. 300s-100s BCE
Zhuangzi = obscure thinker from south China responsible for some, but not all, of text that bears his name
Zhuangzi = most original and complex early Chinese text
After 221 BCE, little interest in Zhuangzi until arrival of Buddhism in China

8. POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ZHUANGZI
“Zhuangism” (1-7, 16-27): associated with Zhuangzi himself, interested in critique of rationalism, spontaneity, ineffable Dao
“Primitivism” (8-10, 11): rejection of society, embrace of “natural” values
“Syncretists” (12-15, 33): combine cosmological concerns with self-cultivation themes
“Yangism” (28-29, 31): associated with individualist/hedonist Yang Zhu 楊朱 (c. 300s BCE)
-- cf. A. C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao (1989)

9. ZHUANGIST THEMES
Conscious knowledge = product of dualism (separation of subject & object)
Dao = mysterious, amoral, beyond conventional wisdom
Unity with Dao = naturalness (ziran 自然), freedom, insight
Spiritual models = craftspersons, enduring natural objects

10. THE SCHOOL OF LAOZI, c. 300s-100s BCE
Laozi = legendary, probably non-historical figure credited with text; deified by 100s CE
Text (c. 250 BCE) also known as Daodejing 道德經 (“Classic of Way and Power”)
In contrast to Zhuangzi, Laozi remains important to Daoists beyond Warring States era

11. POSSIBLE SOURCES OF LAOZI
Diverse concerns suggest multiple layers of authorship:
Meditation techniques
Military strategy
Politics and rulership
Social revolution
Utopian escapism

12. LAOIST THEMES
Conscious knowledge = product of decline from era of sage-king rule
Dao = mysterious, amoral, beyond conventional wisdom
Unity with Dao = anonymity, freedom, natural social order
Spiritual model = characteristic wuwei 無爲(“actionless action”) of natural world

13. THE HUANG-LAO SCHOOL, c. 100s BCE
Huangdi 皇帝 (“Yellow Emperor” – mythical sage-king of primeval times, associated with healing arts and rulership
Laozi 老子
Popular at early Han 漢 court, c BCE
Syncretism of earlier concepts and concerns:
Dao-based cosmology
Techniques of rulership
Interest in law (fa 法)

14. WHAT IS DAOJIA 道家(“TAOISM”)?
The term Daojia (“School of Dao”) does not appear in Chinese texts until Han 漢 dynasty, c.100s BCE
Han librarians use Daojia to unite four traditions:
Huang-di 黃帝 (“Yellow Emperor”) medicine
Daoshu 道術 (“Dao-method”) shamanism
Zhuangzi 莊子 (“Master Zhuang”) skepticism
Laozi 老子(“Old Master”) mysticism/politics

15. MODERN SOLUTIONS
“Philosophical” (pre-221 BCE) vs. “religious” (post-221 BCE) Taoisms [common division]
“Contemplative” (mystical), “purposive” (political), and xian 仙 (immortality-seeking) Taoisms [Creel]
Taoism = only post-221 BCE [Kleeman]
“Laoist” (school of Laozi) vs. “Zhuangist” (school of Zhuangzi) [Graham/LaFargue]

16. DEFINING “TAOISM” Any definition of “Taoism” must account for:
Incredible diversity of items associated with term
Whether/why such items ought to be unified under term