1. Chapter 11
CONGRESS

2. Constitutional Foundations of the Modern Congress
The framers of the Constitution were ambivalent about democracy and concerned about the possibility of government tyranny.
They wanted an energetic government, with the legislative branch as the center of policymaking.
Yet they also limited Congressional power
bicameralism
bills of attainder
ex post facto laws
habeas corpus
separation of powers
checks and balances

3. Representation in Congress
Apportionment
Established through the Great Compromise
Based on population in the House of Representatives and on equal representation of the states in the Senate
Election of legislators

4. Federalism
In our federal system, some powers and responsibilities are granted to the national government, some are shared, and some are reserved for the states.
It is inevitable that conflicts will occur between state governments and the national government.
Federalism also infuses localism into congressional affairs.

5. Representation and Democracy
Styles of representation
Edmund Burke described two principal styles of representation in 1774.
Delegate theory
Trustee theory
Senators (who have longer terms of office) usually have more latitude than representatives to assume the trustee style.

6. Race, Gender and Occupation in Congress
African Americans
Hispanics
Others
Occupation
dominance of law, business, and banking
lack of blue-collar representation
Is it important that Congress be demographically representative of the American people?

7. The Electoral Connection
Electoral districts
reapportionment
redistricting
gerrymandering
majority-minority districts
Money and congressional elections
sources: individuals, PACs, parties, candidates

8. The Electoral Connection
Incumbency
extremely high re-election rates
advantages
franking privilege
casework
pork
Implications for democracy

9. How Congress Works
Congress remains the most influential and independent legislature among Western democratic nations.
Centrifugal forces

10. Political Parties in Congress
At the opening of each new Congress, parties in the two houses hold caucuses to organize their legislative business and select their leadership.
Party composition of Congress
Party voting in Congress
Party discipline

11. Congressional Leadership
The political parties work through the leadership structure of Congress.
Leaders of the majority political party are also the leaders of the House and Senate.
Leadership in the House
Speaker
whips
Leadership in the Senate

12. Congressional Committees
Most of the work of Congress takes place in its committees and subcommittees.
Why Congress has committees
Types of committees
standing committees
subcommittees
select committees
joint committees
conference committees
Committee assignments
Committee and subcommittee chairs

13. Rules and Norms Reciprocity Senate House
bills scheduled by unanimous consent
filibuster & cloture
House
more rule-bound
more hierarchical

14. Legislative Responsibilities: How a Bill Becomes a Law
It is extremely difficult to make law because it is relatively easy to block bills from becoming laws.
Only about 6 percent of all bills that are introduced are enacted into law.

15. Introducing a bill Committee action Floor action Conference committee
Presidential action
veto
pocket veto

16. Legislative oversight of the executive branch
Reviewing the performance of executive branch agencies to ensure that laws are being properly administered and that power is not being abused
An important legislative responsibility of Congress
Primarily managed by the committees and subcommittees
Hearings are an important part of the process.

17. Congress, Public Policy, and the American People
Congress as Policymaker
Frequent criticisms of Congress
Yet, the evidence is mixed
Congress and the American People
Americans tend to approve of their own representatives and senators, but have low regard for Congress as an institution