1. Individual Differences
Chapter 3
Individual Differences
And Assessment

2. Module 3.1: Introduction to Individual Differences
Background
1890 – Cattell & concept of “mental test”
Differential psychology
Psychometrics
World War I & the intelligence test
“g” or general mental ability

3. Varieties of Individual Differences
Cognitive ability & the g-ocentric model
Physical ability
Personality
Interests
Knowledge
Emotion
Monica Lau/Getty Images

4. Figure 3.1: Link b/w Attributes & Behavior in Organizations
The Link between Attributes
and Behavior in Organizations
Source: K. R. Murphy (1996a).

5. Fundamental Assumptions in Applying Individual Differences Model
Adults have variety of attributes that are relatively stable over a period of time
People differ with respect to those attributes
Relative differences among people on these attributes remain even after training
Different jobs require different attributes
These attributes can be measured

6. Module 3.2: Human Attributes
Taxonomy of abilities
Fleishman’s taxonomy of 52 abilities
Cognitive abilities
Physical abilities
Perceptual-motor abilities

7. Cognitive Abilities Intelligence as “g”
Involves ability to reason, plan, solve problems, comprehend complex ideas, & learn from experience
Chad Baker/Getty Images

8. Cognitive Abilities Is “g” important at work? Yes
↑ job complexity = ↑ predictive value of general intelligence tests

9. Carroll’s Hierarchical Model
Figure 3.2
Carroll’s
Hierarchical Model
Source: Carroll (1993).

10. A Model of Physical Abilities
Figure 3.3: A Model of Physical Abilities (Guion, 1998)

11. Sensory Abilities Vision Touch Taste Smell Hearing
Kinesthetic feedback
Jeff Maloney/Getty Images

12. Psychomotor Abilities
Also called sensorimotor or motor abilities
Fleishman’s psychomotor abilities
Arm-hand steadiness
Manual dexterity
Finger dexterity
Control precision
Response orientation
Rate control
Reaction time
Wrist-finger speed

13. Personality & Interests
Big Five Personality Model
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional stability
Extraversion
Openness to experience

14. Practical Issues Associated with Personality Measures
Faking
Self-presentation
Self-efficacy
Social desirability
Does faking really matter?

15. Vocational Interests
Expressions of liking about environments, activities
Holland’s vocational typology
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional

16. Holland’s Vocational Typology
Figure 3.4
Interest Types
Underlying the Hexagonal
Representation of Holland’s
Vocational Typology
Source: Hogan & Blake (1996).

17. Additional Proposed Individual Differences
Skills
Practiced acts
Technical & non-technical
Knowledge
Collection of discrete but related facts & information about a particular domain
Tacit knowledge → “street smarts”
Procedural knowledge → knowing “how”
Declarative knowledge → knowing “that”

18. Additional Proposed Individual Differences (cont'd)
Competencies
Sets of behaviors instrumental in accomplishing various activities
Combination of individual difference characteristics
Emotional intelligence
Awareness of our own & others’ emotions
Controversial construct

19. Module 3.3: Foundations of Assessment
Past & present of testing
1890 – Cattell & “mental test”
WWI: Over million soldiers tested
During WWII: full employment
After WWII: little control over testing
1960s – constraints on testing
Criticism by social observers
Civil Rights Act of 1964

20. What is a Test?
Objective & standardized procedure for measuring a psychological construct using a sample of behavior
Attributes to be assessed CONTENT
Ways to assess attributes PROCESS

21. Two Attributes Measured Using Two Different Procedures
Figure 3.5
Two Attributes
Measured Using Two
Different Procedures

22. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Tests (cont'd)
What is the meaning of a test score?
Norming & norm groups used to interpret & give meaning to a score
Test users & test interpretation
Importance of training test administrators to correctly understand & interpret results
Test battery
Collection of tests assessing variety of different attributes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

23. Administrative Test Categories
Speed vs. power tests
Speed tests have rigid & demanding time limits
Provide greater variability among candidates
Issue of relevance to job
May increase the risk of legal challenges
Power tests have no rigid time limits
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

24. Speed Test The game show “Jeopardy” is an example of a speed test
Picture 3.7

25. Administrative Test Categories (cont'd)
Group vs. individual tests
Individual tests useful in assessing a candidate’s style of problem solving
Group testing is valuable in reducing costs
Paper & pencil vs. performance tests
Performance tests assess skill in performing tasks & knowledge of how to carry out actions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

26. Administrative Test Categories (cont'd)
Where to find tests
Textbooks
Mental Measurements Yearbook (Buros Institute)
Tests In Print (Buros Institute)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

27. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Testing & Culture
Bias
Situation in which a given test results in statistical errors of prediction for a subgroup
Fairness
Value judgment about actions or decisions based on test scores
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

28. Testing & Culture (cont'd)
System in which individuals share meanings & common ways of viewing events & objects
Influence of culture & subculture on test scores
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

29. Module 3.4: Assessment Procedures
Content vs. process
Important distinction for showing validity
Validity depends more on content of gathered information
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

30. Procedures for assessing abilities
Cognitive ability tests
Allow individuals to demonstrate what they know, perceive, remember, understand, or can work mentally

31. Cognitive Ability Tests (cont'd)
Tests that produce a single score
Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT)
Tests of specific abilities
Bennett Test of Mechanical Comprehension

32. Cognitive Ability Tests (cont'd)
Cognitive test batteries
General Aptitude Test Battery
Knowledge tests
Tomi/PhotoLink/Getty Images

33. Tests of Physical Abilities
Physical ability tests
Psychomotor abilities
Coordination, dexterity, reaction time

34. Figure 3.8: Crawford Small Parts Dexterity Test

35. Personality Screen-out tests → Identify psychopathology
Generally used for positions of public trust
May only be administered after offer of employment
Screen-in tests → Identify normal personality
May be administered as pre-employment tests
e.g., Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI)

36. Emotional intelligence
Personality (cont'd)
Emotional intelligence
Controversial construct: Little agreement on definition or how to measure it
Interests & values
Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIB)
Candidate’s score compared to various occupational norm groups

37. Individual Assessment
Only one candidate (or very few) is assessed on many different attributes
Likely to include ability & personality tests, personal history statement, & interviews
May include simulation exercises
Criticisms of individual assessment
Issues of validity, reliability, & ethics

38. Interviews Structured interview Situational interview
Unstructured interview
Tend to cover job knowledge, abilities, skills, personality, & person-org. fit

39. Potential Influences on Employment Interviews
Nature of information
Placement of information
Presence of interviewer stereotypes
Interviewer knowledge of job
Method used by interviewer to combine information
Nonverbal behavior of candidate
Attitudinal/racial/gender similarity of candidate & interviewer
Quality of competing candidates
Interviewer experience
Applicant physical appearance
Attention to factual detail by interviewer
Extent to which interview is structured
Note taking by interviewer
Use of same interviewer(s) for all candidates

40. Assessment Centers Collection of procedures for evaluation
Typical characteristics
Assessment done in groups
Assessment done by groups
Multiple methods of assessment employed
Assessment centers have “feel” of relevance

41. Work Sample Tests
Measure job skills by taking samples of behavior under realistic job-like conditions
Examples:
Rudder control test for pilots
Speech interview for foreign student

42. Situational Judgment Tests
Present candidate with written scenario, then ask candidate to choose best response from series of alternatives
Important characteristics:
Job-related
Well-accepted by test takers
Reduced adverse impact compared to other devices

43. Framework for Relating Multidimensional Nature of SJT to KSAOs and Performance
Figure 3.11

44. Module 5: Special Topics in Assessment
Incremental validity
Value in terms of increased validity of adding a particular predictor to an existing selection system

45. Biographical Data Biodata Ecology model
Includes type of information collected on an application blank
e.g., previous jobs, education, & special training
Ecology model
Events constituting person’s history represent choices made by individual to interact with his/her environment

46. Biographical Data (cont'd)
Distinguishing characteristics of biodata
Historical
External
Objective
Discrete
Control
Relevant & noninvasive

47. Grades & Letters of Recommendation
May be able to predict job offers, but not job success
Little serious research on validity & fairness of these devices

48. Controversial Assessment Practices
Graphology
Assumes traits can be assessed from various characteristics of a person’s handwriting
Polygraph
Machine that measures person’s physiological reactions & signals deception

49. The Polygraph Physiological responses assessed by the polygraph
Associated by the Polygraph

50. Other Assessment Techniques
Drug & alcohol testing
Issues with acceptance by employees & prospective employees
Legal Issues
Drug Free Workplace Act
Integrity testing
Overt integrity test
Personality based integrity test
TRBfoto/Getty Images

51. Computer-Based Assessment
Are we measuring same thing as we are with paper & pencil test or interview?
Yes AND No
Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT)
Based on preliminary routing test; allows for test to be “tailored” to test-taker’s approximate level of ability

52. Routing Test in Computer Adaptive Testing
Figure 3.13.