1. Scientific Method

2. Scientific Method
The primary goal o f science is to help us understand our universe.
Knowledge is based on the gathering of reliable information. The objective (unbiased) means of gathering information is termed the scientific method.
To accomplish this there are 4 basic steps
1.Observe 2. Describe. 3. Explain 4. Predict

3. The primary means of observation is the scientific experiment.
The primary purpose of the scientific experiment is to establish cause and effect. To do this one must create an experimental design that controls as many factors as possible with the exception of the ones you are studying. These factors are called variables.
The variable that the scientist is studying is called the independent variable. It is the variable of interest. The one to which the study is trying to establish as being the cause of any observed differences.

4. The variable used to measure the effect of the independent variable is called the dependent variable. Other factors that may impact a change in performance are termed extraneous variables. Better research designs control more extraneous variables. Ideally all variable would be controlled except for the independent variable. In that case any difference in performance can then be solely attributed to the independent variable (i.e. the variable of interest) Two groups are compared one exposed to the independent variable (experimental group) and the other group that is not exposed to the independent variable (control group).

5. Illustration  Experimental Group Independent Variable Result  
Extraneous
??????   
Extraneous
????????
Control Group
Result  
-If the results are the same or not significantly different, then the Independent Variable
is not effective, i.e. causes no significant difference
-if there is a significant difference ask: Are there other variables (extraneous) that may
have caused the difference. If all extraneous variable are controlled and are the same
between the two groups then the difference can be attributable to the I.V.

6. Example
A study of the effect of creatine supplementation on strength using a 1RM bench press to measure strength
Independent variable= ?

7. A study of the effect of creatine supplementation on strength using a 1RM bench press to measure strength
Creatine is the independent variable.
The Dependent variable is ?

8. A study of the effect of creatine supplementation on strength using a 1RM bench press to measure strength
Dependent Variable = 1RM bench press test Extraneous Variable = ?

9. A study of the effect of creatine supplementation on strength using a 1RM bench press to measure strength
Extraneous Variables:
Nutrition, motivation, level of fitness, sleep, age, etc.

10. Non-Causal Relationships/ Associations or Correlational Studies
Simply try to establish a level of association or correlation between two variables.
No attempt to control variables or establish cause and effect
r=.95 =strong association between two variables
Correlation statistic on 1.0 equals a perfect correlation
R=.45 indicates a weak association

11. Correlation study example
Correlation between vertical jump and I.Q.
Correlation between lung cancer and smoking
Ethical problems to design a study to prove cause and effect.
If correlation is high enough and ethics prevents verification of the hypothesis by the scientific method, and science can explain why there is the possibility of cause and effect, then it is generally accepted as truth ( or accepted theory) assuming a vast number of high correlations in many, many correlation studies
Generally, correlation studies are used as a screen to see if a scientific experiment is warranted. If the correlation is low, then there would be a slim chance that there is a cause and effect present between the two variables. If it is high, then perhaps cause and effect can be established between two variables. Analysis is also required.

12. Types of Research
Basic research- goal is directed to a theoretical generalization. Knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
There may be no practical value in this knowledge
e.g. the mating habits of the monarch butterfly, the effect of music on heart rate and perceived exertion, the effect of salt on the flow of water through a tube
Applied research- goal is to solve a problem the researcher faces. e.g. how best to improve strength through training and nutrition in a short amount of time (8 weeks).

13. Theories
A theory is an attempt to explain why we consistently observe a certain effect or why an independent variable produces a certain effect.
It is presented as an explanation and basis from which outcomes can be predicted related to situations in which the conditions addressed by the theory have not yet been specifically tested.
(creatine supplementation is shown to increase strength in bodybuilders, we can theorize it will do the same in unfit individuals)

14. Theories
Theories are constantly being tested and revised. Theories once accepted, can be rejected as new evidence (observations) are discovered.
Laws or facts are based on consistent results of many experiments (observations) that provide evidence that certain results can be consistently observed as the result of the influence of certain independent variables.
(e.g. law of gravity, target heart rate)

15. Other Research Designs Quantitative Research versus Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research is considered “True Science or Hard Science” It is based on objective evidence such as numbers and statistical analysis. It controls variables and determines cause and effect.
Qualitative Research is based on descriptive evidence. It is subjective and does not control for bias. Data is initially gathered in non-numerical form, mainly verbal. It is considered “soft science”. (Interviews, surveys, etc.)
Case Studies can be quantitative or qualitative (used in law, medicine, education) Intense observation of one particular case.
Interviews- Qualitative
Descriptive Research – can be quantitative or qualitative (used often in research related to health). It describes situations (e.g. how many people take a multiple vitamin, use the fitness center, etc.). It does not seek an explanation or make predictions. It is often used to initiate or measure the effectiveness of an action or policy.

16. Other Research Designs Cont’d Qualitative Research
Grounded Theory- A broad topic is examined and as information is gathered, patterns or themes would be identified to help determine a conclusion which would require further research or used to make a decision or form a policy.
e.g. – an administrator of a school might want to find out if a dress code would improve discipline. As interviews of students and teachers are gathered, the researchers notices that resistance to this idea is a common theme. He may also observe that there are many comments that this is a good idea if students are involved in the process. This info may then be used to to implement and design the dress code or decide not to do so.

17. Research Designs Cont’d Quantitative Designs
Epidemiological Studies – data/statistical studies concerning disease in a population
Controlled Clinical Studies:
Blind- subjects do not know if they are in the treatment or control group
Double Blind- Both the researcher and the subjects do not know who are in the treatment group. (Best design when many extraneous variable are controlled) . This is often used in medicine and drug research.
Randomizes Subjects- helps to prevent subject bias. Samples are theorized to represent the entire population so they must represent a cross-section of the population. (e.g. survey data on best cars in America, given to people in Detroit)
Results from one population may not apply to another. (e.g. animal studies may not produce the same result in humans)
(Anti-depressant drugs have different effects in adults vs. adolescents)

18. Other Controls for Quality/Unbiased Data
Peer Review- research is reviewed by “experts” in the field
Peer Reviewed Journals-Journals in which research is not published until reviewed by two or more experts (who examine research design and conclusions) before being considered by the editor.
Most professional and medical journals are peer reviewed.
Meta-analysis- refers to a wide ranging review of research and the statistical analysis of it, averaging results and conclusions of many studies that address the same research topic.

19. Bias in Research
Publication Bias- Scientific Journals are more likely to publish positive rather than negative studies. Thus, there is a suppression of research that does not support drugs or ideas that are being favored or developed by companies, individuals, or institutions. (e.g. reading lab example).
Conflicts of Interest: Financial
Research funded by a drug company that fails to support their product may no longer be funded. (Sugar industry and saccharin)

20. Scientific Misconduct
Scientists publish bogus data for financial gain
e.g. the Lancet, 1998 (British Journal of Medicine)
Dr. Wakefied had an article published in the Lancet and then suggested that the measles vaccine may be linked to autism a press conference.. Research did not show CAUSE & EFFECT (research was correlational) but Dr. W. vilified the vaccine in his press conference, inferring cause and effect. This was widely publicized on the WWW and the media and vaccination rates plummeted.
2010- UK Medical Council (which licensed doctors) declared Dr. W. acted dishonestly and unethically. They retracted the article and Dr. W.’s medical license was revoked by the UK Medical Council. (Hand out recent article on Autism)