1. Memory LO 7.1a Identify the ways that memories do and don’t accurately reflect experiences.
The retention of information over time
Our memories are surprisingly good in some situations and surprisingly bad in others.
The paradox of memory
A constructive process. About functioning in present, not keeping an accurate record of the past

2. Figure 7.7 The Serial Position Curve

3. The Three Systems of Memory (11 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (11 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
Primacy effect—tendency to remember stimuli presented earliest (now in LTM)
Recency effect—tendency to remember stimuli presented most recently (still in STM)
LO 7.2

4. Source: Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968
Systems of Memory
Source: Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968

5. The Three Systems of Memory (2 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (2 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
Sensory memory
Brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory
Each sense has its own form of sensory memory.
Iconic (visual) lasts only 1 second; echoic (auditory) can last 5–10 seconds.
LO 7.1

6. Sperling’s Experiment with Sensory Memory
When flashed an arrangement of 12 letters for 1/20 of a second, most people can only recall 4 or 5. Sperling used partial report technique to demonstrate that 9-12 letters were available in iconic memory
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

7. The Three Systems of Memory (3 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (3 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
Short-term memory
Memory system that retains information for limited durations
Closely related to working memory
Brief in duration; 5–20 seconds
LO 7.1

8. The Three Systems of Memory (4 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (4 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
We can lose information in our STM due to two different processes
Decay—information fades over time.
Interference or displacement—loss of information due to competition with new, incoming information
LO 7.1

9. Forgetting: Interference vs. Decay
Key Study: Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924), subjects learn list of words either before sleeping or after waking.
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

10. The Three Systems of Memory (5 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (5 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
Types of interference
Retroactive interference happens when learning new information hampers memory for earlier learning.
Proactive interference happens when earlier learning gets in the way of new learning.
Both are more likely to occur when old and new stimuli are similar.
LO 7.2

11. Two Forms of Interference
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

12. The Three Systems of Memory (6 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (6 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
G. Miller: The span of STM in adults is pieces of information: the Magic Number 7.
Can extend our STM span by chunking—organizing information into meaningful groups
K A C F J N A B I S B C F U I vs.
C I A U S A F B I N B C J F K

13. The Three Systems of Memory (8 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (8 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
Rehearsal, repeating information in STM, extends its duration.
Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating STM information in its original form.
Elaborative rehearsal is forming meaningful links among STM material.
LO 7.2

14. The Three Systems of Memory (9 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (9 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
Elaborative rehearsal is usually more effective, consistent with levels-of-processing model.
Three levels: visual, phonological (sound-related), and semantic (meaning-related)
Visual is the most shallow; phonological somewhat less shallow; and semantic the deepest.
LO 7.2

15. The Three Systems of Memory (10 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (10 of 14) LO 7.1b Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
Long-term memory
Relatively enduring store of information
Includes facts, experiences, and skills we’ve developed over a lifetime
Differs from STM in several ways including:
Duration
Semantic codes
Conscious awareness
LO 7.2

16. Figure 7.6 Long-Term Memory Retention
Source: Adapted from Bahrick, 1984, Figure 3

17. The Three Systems of Memory (12 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (12 of 14) LO 7.1c Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory.
Types of long-term memory
Explicit memory is the process of recalling information intentionally.
Divided into
Semantic memory (knowledge of facts)
Episodic memory (events in our lives)
LO 7.2

18. Figure 7.8 The Many Subtypes of Memory

19. Working Memory Model

20. The Three Systems of Memory (13 of 14) LO 7
The Three Systems of Memory (13 of 14) LO 7.1c Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory.
Types of long-term memory
Implicit memory is recalling information that we don’t remember deliberately.
Unlocking our front door
Tying our shoelaces
Includes habituation, classical conditioning, and other forms of learning
Procedural memory refers to motor skills and habits.
Riding a bicycle, touch typing
Priming is our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or quickly after we’ve encountered similar stimuli.
LO 7.3

21. Figure 7.9 Three Processes of Memory
LO 7.3

22. Encoding (1 of 3) LO 7.2a Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge.
To encode material, we must first attend to it.
Most events we experience are never encoded in the first place.
The next-in-line effect and memory for common objects
LO 7.3
Use this slide (together with slide 28) to help demonstrate the priming effect

23. Figure 7.10 Which Penny Is the Real One?
Source: Based on Nickerson & Adams, 1979

24. Encoding (2 of 3) LO 7.2a Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge.
Mnemonics are learning aids that enhance recall.
UNICEF
Every Good Boy Does Fine
While applicable to almost anything, they depend on existing knowledge store.
Types of mnemonics
Pegword method (uses rhyming)
Method of loci (place imagery)
Acronyms (see above)
LO 7.3

25. Storage (1 of 2) LO 7.2b Identify the role that schemas play in the storage of memories.
How we store our experiences in memory depends on our interpretations and expectations of them.
Schemas are organized knowledge structures or mental models that we’ve stored in memory.
What happens when you go to a restaurant?
Bartlett’s study
LO 7.3

26. Retrieval (1 of 6) LO 7.2c Distinguish ways of measuring memory.
Many types of forgetting are failures of retrieval.
Using retrieval cues can help to access information in long-term memory.
Encoding specificity
We are more likely to remember something when the conditions present at the time we encoded it are also present at retrieval.
Two kinds: context-dependent learning and state-dependent learning
LO 7.4

27. Source: Godden & Baddely, 1975
Figure Research Shows that the Word Learning of Scuba Divers Depends on Context.
LO 7.4
Source: Godden & Baddely, 1975

28. Retrieval (6 of 6) LO 7.2d Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences remembering.
State-dependent learning
Superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding
Can extend to mood-dependent learning and the retrospective bias
LO 7.5

29. The Neural Basis of Memory Storage (1 of 2) LO 7
The Neural Basis of Memory Storage (1 of 2) LO 7.3a Describe the role of long-term potentiation in memory.
Memories of different types of experiences are stored in different brain regions.
Long-term potentiation is the gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation.
LTP plays a key role in learning; hippocampus plays a key role in forming memories.
There is, however, no engram.
Memories are diffusely stored.
“Neurons that fire together, wire together.”
LO 7.5

30. Where Is Memory Stored. (1 of 4) LO 7
Where Is Memory Stored? (1 of 4) LO 7.3b Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain’s organization of memory.
Amnesia
Most common types are retrograde (loss of past memories) and anterograde (loss of ability to make new memories).
Myths abound, but generalized amnesia is very rare, as is sudden recovery of memory.
LO 7.6

31. Where Is Memory Stored. (2 of 4) LO 7
Where Is Memory Stored? (2 of 4) LO 7.3b Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain’s organization of memory.
Cases of amnesia
H. M.
Had radical surgery to treat severe epilepsy
Chunks of temporal lobes, including both hippocampi, were removed.
Experienced mild retrograde and severe anterograde amnesia
Implicit memory was preserved.
Clive Wearing
Hippocampi were destroyed by a virus, resulting in complete anterograde amnesia.
Still shows priming effects, though
Bottom line: destroying hippocampus leaves implicit memory intact.
LO 7.7

32. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
The amygdala and hippocampus interact to give us emotional memories.
Amygdala helps recall emotions associated with fearful events.
Hippocampus helps us recall the events themselves.
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

33. Infants’ Implicit Memory LO 7
Infants’ Implicit Memory LO 7.4a Identify how children’s memory abilities change with age.
Inability of adults to retrieve accurate memories before 2–3 years old (“infantile amnesia”)
Hippocampus is only partially developed in infants; lack of sense of self
Lack of language skills to develop personal narrative
LO 7.9

34. The Biology of Memory Deterioration (1 of 2) LO 7
The Biology of Memory Deterioration (1 of 2) LO 7.3c Identify the key impairments of Alzheimer’s disease.
Memory usually begins to show some declines after 65, but not always.
Alzheimer’s disease is the most frequent cause of dementia (50 percent–60 percent of cases).
Show memory and language losses, consistent with cortical loss
Research shows that those with active lifestyles, more physically fit are less likely to develop AD.
Greater education and intellectual activity are related to lower AD rates.
LO 7.7