Chemistry.

Chemistry

Chemical Level of Organization
The world we live in is made of matter. Matter = space and has mass: solid liquid gas

13 are commonly found in the human body:
elements 13 are commonly found in the human body: carbon iodine oxygen calcium iron potassium chlorine magnesium sulfur hydrogen nitrogen Only 4 make up 96% of human body. Do you know which these are?

carbon iodine oxygen calcium iron potassium chlorine magnesium sulfur hydrogen nitrogen

Each chemical element can be represented by a chemical symbol which is usually the first letter or two letters of the name of the element. For example, carbon = C What is the chemical symbol for each of the following elements? hydrogen = nitrogen = oxygen =

Sometimes, however, the chemical symbol of an element is the first letter or letters of the latin name. For example: sodium = Na (latin for natrium) What is the chemical symbol for each of the following elements? potassium = calcium = chlorine =

Elements are made of smaller units called atoms.
Atoms in turn are composed of three basic subatomic particles. electron in motion around the outside of the nucleus are tiny subatomic particles called electrons. proton neutron The center of the atom, called the nucleus, contains subatomic particles called protons and neutrons;

- electron neutron proton Protons carry a positive electrical charge.
+ proton neutron o Neutrons carry no electrical charge (they are neutral). - electron Electrons carry a negative electrical charge. Look at the atom above. If each protons carries a + charge and each electron carries a - charge, what would the total charge on this atom be?

- 6+ + 6- = 0 electron neutron proton o +
= 0 + proton - electron neutron o The positive and negative charges would cancel one another, so the overall charge would be 0. Atoms are electrically neutral ( # of protons = the # of electrons).

Atoms of the same element all have the same number of protons
Atoms of the same element all have the same number of protons. For example, all hydrogen atoms have 1 proton. H atoms Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons. For example, all carbon atoms have 6 protons, while all H atoms have just 1 proton. C atom

atomic number = number protons
The number of protons found in the atoms of an element is unique to that element, and can be used to describe that element. The number of protons in the atoms of an element is called the atomic number of that element. atomic number = number protons atomic number of C = 6 atomic number of H = 1

Protons, neutrons, and electrons also have weight or mass.
This weight or mass is expressed in units called atomic mass units (amu) 1 neutron = 1 amu 1 electron = 0 amu 1 proton = 1 amu Although electrons do have weight or mass, it is so small that it is considered to be 0.

mass number = protons + neutrons
This means that the mass number of an atom is equal to the number protons plus the number of neutrons in that atom. mass number = protons + neutrons What is the mass number of this atom?

6 protons + 6 neutrons = 12 mass number = 12 amu

The periodic table of elements is used to list elements in order of their increasing atomic numbers. Here is a partial periodic table showing the first 20 elements. Elements in the same column tend to have similar chemical properties

Each square on the periodic table displays the chemical symbol for an element, as well as its atomic number and its mass number. atomic number chemical symbol mass number

Although all atoms in an element have the same number of protons, some atoms in an element may have a different number of neutrons. Atoms with same atomic number (or number of protons) but differing in number of neutrons are called isotopes of that element.

For example, here are three atoms of carbon
For example, here are three atoms of carbon. Note that they all have the atomic number 6. This means they all have 6 protons. They differ, however, in the number of neutrons they have, and so their mass numbers are different. 6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons isotopes of carbon Most carbon atoms have 6 neutrons but a few have 7, while others have 8. These atoms with differing numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of the element carbon.

Radioisotopes are special isotopes that can affect human health.
As isotopes, they are unstable and emit particles/energy to become stable. Such emissions can be detected with special instruments. Radioisotopes are used in medicine as tracers and for treatment. Their damaging effects on human tissue mean they also can adversely affect human health.

Electrons are located in motion around the outside of atoms in shells or energy levels Each electron shell holds a set maximum number of electrons.

Here are the first three electron energy levels
Here are the first three electron energy levels. Note the maximum number of electrons each can hold. These are the levels we will be concerned with in the following discussion of chemical bonding. holds 2 electrons holds 8 electrons can hold more than 8 electrons, but stable at 8

Needs 1 because inner shell can only hold 2 electrons
Needs 4 - outer shell has 4 and can hold maximum of 8 Needs 3 - outer shell has 5 and can hold maximum of 8 Look at the atoms on this slide. How many electrons will it take to fill the outermost shell of each atom? Needs 2

The outer shell electrons are called valence electrons
Valence electrons are the ones that allow atoms to interact with one another.

When an atom does not have a full outer shell of electrons, it is not stable. Such an atom will interact with another atom in order to produce a full outer shell. Look at these two atoms. Which of them has a full outer shell and is stable? Which atom is more likely to interact with other atoms and form chemical bonds in order to end up with a full outer shell?

more likely to interact with other atoms
has a full outer shell and is stable

Types of Chemical Bonds
Atoms with incomplete outer shells will try to maximize electrons in their outermost shells by doing one of the following: 1) giving away the electrons in their outer shell; this makes the full inner shell the outermost 2) picking up electrons to fill the incomplete shell 3) sharing electrons with other atoms When atoms interact with other atoms in this way they form chemical bonds.

Two types of chemical bonds are used to join atoms together:
ionic bonds covalent bonds Ionic bonds form when atoms donate electrons to one another. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons rather than giving them away.

Let’s first look at ionic bonds, those that are formed when atoms donate electrons to one another.
If an atom either picks up or gives away an electron, the # of electrons in that atom no longer equals the # protons. When this happens, an atom becomes a charged particle called an ion. (protons = electrons) atom > ion

Here’s an atom with 8 protons and 8 electrons
Here’s an atom with 8 protons and 8 electrons. If this atom gives away an electron what will happen? 8p

The atom would have more protons (8) than electrons (7) and would become positively charged.
+ ion Positively charged ions are called cations.

11p (+) 11e (-) 11p (+) 11e (-) 11p (+) 10e (-) cation
Here’s an example: 11p (+) e (-) 11p (+) e (-) cation The sodium atom (Na) is now a sodium cation (Na+). Atoms with almost empty outer shells tend to give away electrons.

8p What if an atom picks up an electron instead of giving one away?

If this atom picks up an electron, it will have more electrons (9) than protons (8). The extra electron will make the atom negatively charged. 8p ion Negatively charged ions are called anions.

17p (+) 17e (-) 17p (+) 18e (-) 17p (+) 17e (-) anion
An example: 17p (+) 17e (-) 17p (+) 18e (-) 17p (+) 17e (-) anion Here’s an example: Atoms with almost full outer shells tend to pick up electrons.

Na+ (sodium) Cl- (chloride) K+ (potassium) H+ (hydrogen)
Here are examples of important cations and anions found in human body: Some ions are made up of more than one type of atom and are called complex ions: Na+ (sodium) Cl- (chloride) K+ (potassium) H+ (hydrogen) Ca++ (calcium) OH- (hydroxide ion) HCO3- (bicarbonate ion) PO4-3 (phosphate ion) Which of the ions listed on this slide are cations?

How are ionic bonds formed?
Ionic bonds form in the following way: 1) one atom will give away one or more electrons to another atom 2) this produces a cation (+) and an anion (-) 3) the opposite charges on the cation and anion attract one another and pull the ions together 4) this forms an ionic bond

Those that are almost empty give away their electrons.
Atoms that like to form ionic bonds are those that have almost empty or almost full outer electron shells. Those that are almost empty give away their electrons. Those that are almost full pick up additional electrons.

A Na atom has an outer shell with only 1 electron
A Na atom has an outer shell with only 1 electron. This shell is stable when it has either no electrons (empty shell) or has 8 electrons. This shell is unstable with only one electron.

An atom of chlorine, Cl, has an outer shell with 7 electrons
An atom of chlorine, Cl, has an outer shell with 7 electrons. This shell is stable when it has either no electrons or 8 electrons. With 7 electrons it is unstable.

If Na gives away its one electron to Cl, its outermost shell becomes empty, while the outer shell of Cl now has 8 electrons. Na gives away its electron to becomes a cation (Na+) and Cl becomes an anion (Cl-)

The oppositely charged Na+ and Cl- are attracted to one another & the two ions are pulled together.
This attractive force is an ionic bond.

To review the steps in forming an ionic bond:
1. electrons are donated from one atom to another 2. positive and negative ions form 3. attractive force between the positive and negative charges form an ionic bond

ex: NaCl ----> Na+ + Cl-
Compounds formed with ionic bonds come apart or ionize or dissociate easily when put into water. ex: NaCl > Na+ + Cl- (put into water) ionization or dissociation

Let’s look at another, slightly more complicated, example of ionic bonding.
An atom of calcium has 2 valence electrons it wants to get rid of, while an atom of chlorine needs only 1 electron to complete its outer shell. This means that for calcium and chlorine to bond, 1 calcium and 2 chlorines are required.

When calcium gives away 2 electrons, it becomes Ca++, while each chlorine, picking up 1 electron, becomes Cl-. The cation and 2 anions are attracted to one another, and an ionic bond is formed.

The second type of chemical bond that forms between atoms is called a covalent bond.
In a covalent bond, atoms do not give away or pick up electrons to fill their outer shells, but rather they share their electrons with one another.

Here are two hydrogen atoms
Here are two hydrogen atoms. Each H has only one electron, and that electron is in the innermost shell – the shell that can only hold a maximum of two electrons.

Each H needs only one more electron to have a full outer shell.
If the two H atoms share their electrons rather than give them away, then they each will have two electrons (or a full outer shell) some of the time.

In this case the two H atoms form a covalent bond, a bond in which atoms share electrons.

H These two hydrogen atoms have bonded to form a molecule.
This molecule may be denoted _ H The line between the H atoms indicates that a single covalent bond holds the two atoms together. This is the structural formula for hydrogen gas.

This same molecule may also be written as H2
The H tells you that the only element in this molecule is hydrogen. The subscript 2 tells you that this is a molecule made up of two hydrogen atoms. H2 is the molecular formula for hydrogen gas.

H H H2 = molecular formula
Thus, a molecule can be illustrated in several different ways: H = electron dot structure H _ = structural formula H2 = molecular formula

Covalent bonds also form between different atoms.
Here is an oxygen atom. O has 6 electrons in its outer shell, and so it needs 2 more electrons to fill this valence shell.

Here are two hydrogen atoms
Here are two hydrogen atoms. Each of these atoms needs one more electron to fill its outer shell. (Remember this shell can only hold 2 electrons.)

If the two H atoms each share their one electron with O, and if the O atom shares two of its electrons, one with each H, then both H and O atoms will have full outer shells (some of the time) making them stable.

This covalent bonding forms water, H2O.

The water that was formed from two H and one O can be written H-O-H
This structural formula shows you the way the atoms are held together, each hydrogen binding with the oxygen, and not with one another. The lines between the chemical symbols represent single covalent bonds. Water also can be written using a molecular formula, H2O. This formula does not tell you how the atoms are arranged, but it does tell you that water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

double covalent bond Atoms can share more than one pair of electrons.
Here are 2 oxygen atoms, each of which needs 2 electrons to fill its outer shell. By sharing 2 electrons, each atom has a full outer shell most of the time. This type of bond is called a:

When two atoms form a covalent bond, they both will pull on or attract the shared electrons.
The term electronegativity describes the tendency for an atom to attract bonding electrons.

These atoms form a nonpolar covalent bond
When two identical atoms form a covalent bond, the two atoms have equal electronegativity and pull equally on the bonding electrons. These atoms share their electrons evenly; the electrons spend equal amounts of time around each atom. Electrical charge is spread evenly throughout the molecule. These atoms form a nonpolar covalent bond

Sometimes, however, one atom in a covalent bond has a greater electronegativity and stronger pull on the electrons in the bond. This means the electrons are not shared evenly. Notice the red electrons are closer to one atom than the other. They are spending more time around the green atom than around the blue atom. Here is a diagram to show you how this might look.

Because the electrons spend more time with the green atom, it becomes slightly negative.
And since the electrons spend less time with the blue atom, it becomes slightly positive. When atoms in a covalent bond do not share electrons evenly, they form a polar covalent bond.

Water is a good example of polar covalent bonding.
Which atom is pulling more on the electrons? How can you tell????

The oxygen has the greater pull on the bonding electrons, so it is slightly negative, while the two hydrogens become slightly positive.

Summary: nonpolar covalent bond = even sharing of electrons
polar covalent bond = uneven sharing of electrons

Another type of chemical bonding that is important in biological systems is hydrogen bonding.
This type of bond forms when a H with a d+ is attracted to the d- of a nearby electronegative atom (usually O or N).

This type of bonding occurs between individual molecules of water.
The positive H in one H2O is attracted to the negative O in another H2O, and a weak hydrogen bond forms.

Note that this type of bonding does not involve donating electrons or sharing electrons. It is simply an attractive force between a slightly positively charged area and a slightly negatively charged area.

(All of the dashed lines in this picture represent hydrogen bonds)
Here are many water molecules together, where hydrogen bonding becomes an important force. H H O H O H hydrogen bond H H (All of the dashed lines in this picture represent hydrogen bonds) O H

The hydrogen bonds in water account for water many of its unique properties, including cohesion and surface tension. O H hydrogen bond Hydrogen bonds are important forces that help maintain the shape of both protein molecules and DNA.

Comparison of Ionic, Polar Covalent, and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

A + B A-B ------> A-B A + B ------> Chemical Reactions
In a chemical reaction, the reactant(s) is (are) what you start with, while the product(s) is (are) what you end up with. A + B A-B ------> reactants product ------> A-B A + B reactants product

The chemical bonds that hold atoms and ions together contain potential or stored energy.
This means that when chemical bonds are formed, energy is required, and when chemical bonds are broken, energy is released.

A + B ------> A-B Forming a chemical bond: energy in
requires energy small molecules ---> larger molecules synthesis reaction anabolic reaction Ex: amino acids ---> proteins

A-B ----> A + B Breaking a chemical bond: energy out
releases energy larger molecules ---> smaller molecules decomposition reaction catabolic reaction Ex: protein -----> amino acids

Classification of chemicals in living systems:
Inorganic Organic Classification of chemicals in living systems: usually not contain C usually contain C use ionic and some covalent bonding use covalent bonding relatively small relatively large many dissolve in water to release ions most not readily soluble in water; do not release ions ex: acids bases, salts ex: proteins, sugars, fats

HCl H+ + Cl- Inorganic chemicals Acids: strong acid
chemicals that dissociate in water to release one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more anions. HCl H+ + Cl- strong acid Strong acids tend to dissociate or ionize completely to produce large numbers of H+. This is indicated by the arrow which runs in only one direction.

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- bicarbonate ion carbonic acid weak acid
Here is a second example of an acid, carbonic acid. This acid is described as a weak acid since it does not completely dissociate (arrows going in two directions.) H2CO H+ + HCO3- carbonic acid bicarbonate ion weak acid It is “weak” since it produces fewer H+ in solution than an acid that dissociates completely.

Bases: NaOH Na+ + OH- We will look at two definitions of bases.
1) chemicals that dissociate in water to release hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations. NaOH Na+ + OH- This is an example of a strong base.

Bases: NaOH Na+ + OH- OH- + H+ H- OH (= H2O)
2) chemicals that remove (H+) from solution OH- + H H- OH (= H2O) NaOH Na+ + OH- When OH- are released into a solution they have a tendency combine with any available H+ and to remove them from solution Looking again at NaOH:

Summary: acids – chemicals that add H+ to a solution bases – chemicals that remove H+ from a solution

Salts: NaCl ----> Na+ + Cl-
chemicals that dissociate in water to release a cation other than H+ and anion other than OH- NaCl ----> Na+ + Cl-

pH scale runs 0 - 14 0 - 6.9 = acidic range 7.0 = neutral
In biology, when measuring the acidity or alkalinity of solutions one uses a special scale called the pH scale. The pH scale describes the concentration of H+ present in a solution. pH scale runs = acidic range = basic range 7.0 = neutral

0………….7………….14 decreasing concentration H+ less acidic more acidic
increasing concentration H+

concentration H+ increases 10 X
Although the pH scale only runs from 0 to 14, a single unit change on the pH scale = 10X change in H+ concentration. example: pH pH 3.0 concentration H+ increases 10 X example: pH pH 2.0 concentration H+ increases 100 X

concentration H+ at 7.0 is 1/10 that at 6.0
In the same way, as one goes up the pH scale, and acidity decreases, a single unit change on pH scale reflects a 1/10 reduction in H+ concentration. example: pH pH 7.0 concentration H+ at 7.0 is 1/10 that at 6.0 example: pH pH 8.0 concentration H+ at 8.0 is 1/100 that at 6.0

buffer : chemicals or system of chemicals that resist changes in pH
In order to maintain pH homeostasis, biological systems often depend on chemical buffering systems. buffer : chemicals or system of chemicals that resist changes in pH In order to maintain a relatively steady pH, a good buffering system must be able to do two things: remove H+ from a solution when there are too many H+ and release H+ into solution when there are too few H+

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- Example of a buffer system: combination of
carbonic acid bicarbonate ion combination of and

H+ + HCO3- H2CO3 If pH drops due to increasing numbers of H+
the bicarbonate ion begins to pick up the extra H+ from solution to form carbonic acid. Removing the H+ from solution keep them from lowering pH.

On the other hand, when pH rises due to the loss or removal of H+
H HCO H2CO3 the carbonic acid begins to dissociate to add H+ to the solution. Adding H+ to the solution will prevent the pH from rising.

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- bicarbonate ion carbonic acid
In this way, the buffer is able to handle both increases and decreases in H+ and maintain a steady pH. H2CO H HCO3- carbonic acid bicarbonate ion

Water - most abundant compound in living material
Acts as a lubricant and shock absorber important role in transporting chemicals in the body two-thirds of the weight of an adult human major component of all body fluids medium for most metabolic reactions can absorb and transport heat – maintains body temperature high heat of vaporization high specific heat Universal solvent Carbon dioxide (CO2) waste product released during metabolic reactions must be removed from the body Oxygen (O2) used by organelles to release energy from nutrients necessary for survival Inorganic salts abundant in body fluids sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca ++, etc.) play important roles in metabolic processes

Nucleic acids are the largest of the organic molecules in the body.
There are two nucleic acids: = deoxyribonucleic acid DNA RNA = ribonucleic acid and Nucleic acids The building blocks of nucleic acids are called nucleotides.

A nucleotide has 3 parts:
1) a pentose sugar ribose or deoxyribose 2) a phosphate group = PO4 3) an organic N-containing base adenine guanine cytosine thymine or uracil

Here is the structure of a single nucleotide:
2. 3. either ribose or deoxyribose 1.

nucleotide Both DNA and RNA are built from nucleotides that are strung together in long chains. Here is a small piece of a nucleic acid. The red box shows you one nucleotide in this chain .

sugar phosphate In a nucleic acid the sugar and phosphate molecules are linked together to form a sugar-phosphate backbone base The bases project off of this sugar-phosphate backbone.

This diagram shows a small fragment of RNA
RNA is a single stranded nucleic acid 2) RNA uses the sugar ribose (hence its name ribonucleic acid) 3) RNA uses the bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U). RNA does not use the base thymine (T).

DNA differs from RNA in several ways.
DNA is a double-stranded molecule 2) DNA uses the sugar deoxyribose, hence its name, deoxyribonucleic acid 3) DNA uses the bases adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), & cytosine (C); it and does not use uracil (U).

Look closely at the diagram of DNA and you will see that the two strands making up the molecule are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between the bases. (Remember hydrogen bonding from those water molecules that were attracted to each other? Here it is the slightly positive hydrogens in one base that are attracted to partial negative charges in another base.)

Look carefully at the way the bases are arranged in pairs in DNA
Look carefully at the way the bases are arranged in pairs in DNA. Do you see a pattern? A always pairs with T, G always pairs with C. This is called complementary base pairing. A-----T G-----C

It is only when A pairs with T and G with C that hydrogen bonds are formed.

Not only is DNA made of two strands of nucleic acids held together by hydrogen bonds, but these two strands are also twisted around one another to form a helix. Here is a small segment of DNA showing the double helix shape.

DNA and RNA also differ in where they are found inside the cell & in their functions.
serves as the blueprint for protein synthesis in the cell found primarily inside the nucleus of a cell; RNA: carries out the work of synthesizing proteins located both inside and outside the nucleus;

ATP The final organic molecule to be considered is ATP, adenosine triphosphate. This molecule is an important source of energy for cell activity. ATP is sometimes referred to as the “energy currency” of the cell.

ATP looks very much like a nucleotide
ATP looks very much like a nucleotide. It is made of a sugar (ribose), a base (adenine) and phosphate. However, while a nucleotide 1 phosphate group, ATP has 3 phosphates – hence the name triphosphate.

The chemical bonds that attach the two additional phosphate groups are considered to be high energy bonds, that is, when they are broken a large quantity of energy is released. This is the energy used by the cell. high energy bonds

ATP ----------> ADP + P + energy
Below is the chemical reaction that occurs when ATP is split by hydrolysis and energy is released. When adenosine triphosphate (ATP) loses a phosphate, it becomes adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in the process. energy ATP > ADP + P + energy

energy ATP <---------- ADP + P
Cells do not store ATP but rather makes it as it as needed. When a cell makes ATP it takes ADP and a phosphate group and with available energy forms a chemical bond between them to produce ATP. energy ATP < ADP + P

Proteins In terms of function, this is the most diverse group of organic molecules in the body. For example, some proteins are used in cell structure, others are hormones, still others are antibodies. Cells themselves often are described as small protein factories. Proteins are built of smaller units called amino acids. Hundreds to thousands of amino acids are joined together in chains to make one protein.

central carbon amino group carboxyl group
There are twenty different amino acids used by human cells to make proteins. All of these amino acids have the same basic parts: central carbon amino group carboxyl group It is the R group that differs from one amino acid to another. The R group of an amino acid makes it unique.

Here are examples of several different amino acids
Here are examples of several different amino acids The R group of each amino acid is shaded in beige. Each amino acid has a unique R group.

When amino acids are joined together to build a protein, the process of dehydration synthesis is used. The carboxyl group of one amino acid is linked to the amino group of the second amino acid as H2O is removed. The new bond between the amino acids is called a peptide bond.

On the other hand, when proteins are digested and broken down, the peptide bonds between individual amino acids are split by the process of hydrolysis.

Proteins are very large molecules that are folded and twisted into unique shapes. The particular shape that a protein has is critical to its biological activity. If it loses its shape, it can no long do its job. Proteins are described as possessing several different levels of structure, each important to the overall shape of the molecule.

The most basic level of organization in a protein is its primary structure. This refers to the specific linear order of the amino acids from which it is made. Like beads in a necklace, the amino acids are arranged in a highly specific order.

The secondary structure of a protein is determined by the interaction between the amino acids. It is a regular, repeated bending and twisting of the amino acid chain. Two common shapes seen in secondary protein structure are the alpha helix (twisting) and pleated sheet (folding).

The tertiary structure of a protein is superimposed over the secondary structure and is an irregular folded and twisted three dimensional shape. It is the tertiary structure that must be maintained for the protein to be biologically active.

Proteins that are made up of two or more chains of amino acids have an additional quaternary structure. This level of structure reflects the interaction between the multiple amino acid chains.

When a protein is exposed to extreme conditions (pH, temperature, etc
When a protein is exposed to extreme conditions (pH, temperature, etc.) it may lose its tertiary structure and become inactive. This process is called denaturation.

reactants ------------> products
One very important group of proteins serve as enzymes in the body. Enzymes are biological catalysts - they speed up the rate at which chemical reactions occur. reactants > products enzyme Essentially every reaction that occurs in your body depends on the presence of an enzyme to make it “go”. Enzymes are not destroyed in the process of speeding up reactions, which means they can be used over and over again.

How do enzymes work? Enzymes first form a complex with the reactant(s) of a reaction. In enzyme-catalyzed reactions the reactants are known as substrates and this complex is an enzyme-substrate complex. = The enzyme remains unchanged at the end of the reaction and is ready to combine again with substrate. The enzyme-substrate complex allows the reaction to occur, resulting in the formation of product.

Characteristics of enzymes:
are protein molecules serve as biological catalysts are active in small amounts and not used up in the reaction are specific for the reaction they catalyze are specific for their substrate names end in “ase” often require presence of cofactors such as metal ions or derivatives of certain vitamins

Enzymes are specific because they have an active site
Enzymes are specific because they have an active site. Only the substrate for that enzyme will fit into and bind to the active site. Active site substrate enzyme Enzyme-substrate complex Enzyme + product

Example of an enzyme in action: hydrolysis of sucrose by sucrase
The enzyme sucrase will only work on the disaccharide sucrose – it won’t work on maltose or lactose. It is specific for the hydrolysis of sucrose.

Chemistry.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Chemistry."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Chemistry.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Chemistry."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback