1. Infants, Children, and Adolescents Laura E. Berk 6th edition
Chapter 7
Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
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2. Psychodynamic Stages Age Erikson’s Stage First Year Basic Trust versus
Mistrust
Second Year
Autonomy
Shame and Doubt

3. Interpreting Emotions
Assuming a close correspondence between a pattern of behavior and an emotional state can lead to error.
Emotional expressions are flexibly organized, and vary with the person’s developing capacities, goals and context.
Cues can be vocal, facial, gestural, and situational.

4. The MAX System
(a) Cheeks raised and corners of the mouth pulled back and up signals happiness.
(b) Eyebrows raised, eyes widened, and mouth opened with corners pulled straight back denotes fear.

5. First Appearance of Basic Emotions
Happiness
Smile—from birth
Social smile—6 to 10 weeks
Laugh—3 to 4 months
Anger
General distress—from birth
Anger—4 to 6 months
Sadness
Distress to “still face”—2 to 7 mos.
Fear
First fears—6 to 12 months
Stranger Anxiety—8 to 12 months

6. Understanding Emotions of Others
Emotional Contagion
Early infancy
Recognize Other’s Facial Expressions
From 5 months
Social Referencing

7. Self-Conscious Emotions
Shame
Embarrassment
Guilt
Envy
Pride
Emerge middle of second year
Need adult instruction about when to feel them

8. Emotional Self-Regulation
Effortful control improves gradually, as the result of the development of the cerebral cortex and the assistance of caregivers.
Young infants rely on caregivers to soothe them.
Self-regulation grows over first year, with brain development.
Caregivers contribute to child’s self-regulation style.

9. Structure of Temperament
Easy – 40%
Difficult – 10%
Slow-to-warm-up – 15%
Unclassified – 35%

10. Two Models of Temperament

11. Biological Basis for Temperament
Uninhibited, Sociable
React positively, approach new stimuli
Low heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms
Higher left hemisphere frontal cortex activity
Inhibited, Shy
React negatively, withdraw from new stimuli
High heart rates, stress hormones & stress symptoms
Higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity

12. Stability of Temperament
Temperament develops with age.
Long-term prediction from early temperament is best achieved after age 3.
Many factors can influence temperament, including the biological systems on which temperament is based, effortful control, and parenting experiences.

13. Genetics and Environment in Temperament
Genetic Influences
Responsible for about half of individual differences
Ethnicity, gender
Environmental Influences
Cultural caregiving styles
Boys & girls treated differently
Parents emphasize sibling differences
Goodness
Of Fit
Combines genetics and environment

14. Temperament Correlations for Identical and Fraternal Twin Pairs

15. Changes Over Time in Correlations Between Shyness and Adjustment Among Chinese Fourth Graders

16. Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment
Preattachment
Attachment-in-the-making
Clear-cut attachment
Separation anxiety
Formation of a reciprocal relationship

17. Measuring the Security of Attachment
Secure Attachment
Use the parents as a secure base; actively seek contact with the parent when he or she returns.
Avoidant Attachment
Seem unresponsive to the parent and are slow to greet the parent upon reunion.
Resistant Attachment
Seek closeness to the parent and are distressed and angry when the parent returns.
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
Pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants often show confused, contradictory behaviors.

18. Measuring the Security of Attachment
Secure – 65%
Avoidant – 20%
Resistant – 10%
Disorganized-
disoriented – 5 to 10%

19. Episodes in the Strange Situation

20. The Attachment Q-Sort
Suitable method for children between 1 and 5 years of age.
Relies on home observations of up to 90 behaviors.
Time-consuming method that does not differentiate between types of insecurity.

21. A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Infants’ Reactions in the Strange Situation

22. Factors that Affect Attachment Security
Opportunity for attachment
Quality of caregiving
Interactional synchrony
Infant characteristics
Family circumstances
Parents’ internal working models

23. Influence of Mother-Infant Distress at 6 Months on Relationship Harmony at 24 Months

24. Factors that Affect Attachment of Children in Child Care
Initial Attachment Quality
Family Circumstances
Quality of Child Care
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Extent of Child Care

25. Multiple Attachments Fathers Siblings Grandparents
Professional caregivers

26. The Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth in Development
Fathers’ sustained affectionate involvement predicted later emotional, cognitive, and social competence, as strongly, if not more strongly than a mothers’ warmth.
Some fathers express warmth through play.

27. Grandparent Primary Caregivers
Over the last ten years, families in which grandparents are the children’s primary caregivers have increased.
Many are taking over during times of stress.
Grandparent caregivers forge significant attachment relationships with their grandchildren in spite of problems.

28. Siblings
80% of North American children still grow up with at least one sibling.
Resentment can be minimized by spending time with the older child, handling sibling misbehavior with patience, discussing the baby’s wants and needs and modeling good problem solving.

29. Attachment and Later Development
Secure attachment related to positive outcomes in:
Preschool
Middle childhood
Continuity of caregiving may link infant attachment and later development.

30. Self-Awareness
Beginnings:
At birth, infants have a sense of self as a distinct agent, separate from the surrounding world.
Self-awareness is limited.
Self-Recognition:
Sense of self as object of knowledge and evaluation.
Aware of qualities that make self unique at 20 months.

31. Testing Emerging Self-Awareness

32. Self-Awareness
At the end of the first year, learn that their own goals frequently conflict with those of others.
Empathy emerges and improves through early childhood.

33. Self-Control Effortful control
Capable of compliance between 12 and 18 months
Toddlers assert autonomy by sometimes not complying
Delay of gratification shows self-control
Warm, sensitive caregiving increases compliance

34. Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control
Respond with sensitivity and support.
Give advance notice of change in activities.
Offer many prompts and reminders.
Reinforce self-controlled behavior.
Encourage sustained attention.
Support language development.
Increase rules gradually.