1. Instructional Design Models
Instructional Design Perspectives and Models
Cindy Barnes, 2015
Instructional Design Perspectives 8/17/2015
Cindy Barnes

2. What is Instructional Design Model
“Models, like myths and metaphors, help us to make sense of our world. Whether derived from whim or from serious research, a model offers its user a means of comprehending an otherwise incomprehensible problem” (Ryder, para. 1)
“the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation” (Smith & Ragan, 1999).

3. Different Perspectives
Behavioral - Instructor designs the learning environment. Ensure the environment has the right stimuli to promote learning.
Cognitive - Instructor manages problem solving and structured discovery activities, especially with group learning strategies.
Constructivism or Developmental - Instructor mentors peer interaction and continuity of building on known concepts.
We're always answering the pedagogical question: "What do I want my students to know, do, and believe as a result of the instructional experiences in each unit?"  Then we have to figure out our teaching strategies, the exact content, and the right assessment method to detect learning.
The purpose of learning about dominant theories of the past century and some implications for instructional design is to increase time on task and the quality of learning.

4. Instructional Strategies
Behaviorism
Theorists
Assessments
Instructional Strategies
John Watson
Ivan Pavlov
B. F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike (Ryder, 2014 & Dabbagh, 2015).
Both summative and formative assessments are most commonly used. Learner acquires skills of recalling facts, generalization, defining and illustrating concepts. Automatically performing a specified procedure (Dabbagh, 2015).
Direct and
Questioning strategies as learning can be detected by observing an behavior change over a period of time.
Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors
Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts. Provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult concepts. Sequence material to enhance understanding (i.e., simple concepts first before proceeding to more difficult concepts). State the learning outcomes desired and establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given. Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behavior.

5. Ivan Pavlov introduced the theory of classical conditioning through a series of experiments with dogs. Learning is the result of an association formed between a stimulus and a response.

6. Dick and Carey Model
The Dick and Carey Model includes the 5 step process
Stage 1: Identify Instructional Goals
Stage 2. Conduct Instructional Analysis
Stage 3. Identify Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics
Stage 4: Write Performance Objectives
Stage 5. Develop Criterion-Referenced Test Items
Stage 6. Develop Instructional Strategy
Stage 7: Develop and Select Instructional Meterials
Stage 8: Develop and Conduct Formative Evaluation
Stage 9: Develp and Conduct Summative Evaluation (Instructional Design Models, 2012)
Walter Dick and Lou Carey (1996) advocate a systems approach model for designing instruction in the fourth edition of their text, The Systematic Design of Instruction work is based on the behaviorist perspective.

7. Instructional Strategies
Cognitive
Theorists
Assessments
Instructional Strategies
Anderson
David Ausubel
Gardner
Gagne
Merrill
Norman
Novak
Reigeluth
Keller’s ARCS model of motivation
Kemp (Dabbagh, 2015).
Both formative and summative assessments are utilized to “[i]nform and Guide instruction. Does the learner need information? Does the learner need instruction? Does the learner need guidance” (Cognitive Design Solutions, para 5)?
Direct, questioning and cooperative instructional strategies as learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way. 
Teachers assist learners in organizing information.
Gain the students’ attention by using cues to signal when you are ready to begin. Move around the room and change voice tones. Ring to mind relevant prior learning, review previous day’s lesson and have a discussion about previously covered content.

8. Cognitive theories of learning focus on the mind or attempt to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled. The “stage theory” that was proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) argue that information is received, processed and stored in three different stages. This theory has also been described as the Information Processing Approach.

9. Keller's ARCS model of Motivational Learning is a method for improving the motivational appeal of instructional materials.* The model suggests that learning occurs most effectively when learners are engaged throughout the entire learning process, and that strategies can be put in place to ensure that this engagement carries forward through to the completion. Keller's ARCS method consists of 4 major components: Attention - Material must grab the learner's attention
Relevance - Material must matter to them
Confidence - Learners must believe that they can succeed
Satisfaction - Learner must receive some sort of reward or reinforcement at the end of the learning experience

10. ADDIE Model

11. Analyze
This is the foundation for all other phases of instructional design. The purpose of this phase is to define the problem, identify the source of the problem and determine possible solutions.
What are the overall learning goals for your instruction?
A list of instructional goals and tasks should be generated.
What are the general characteristics of your target audience?
What are their learning needs and goals?

12. Design
This phase uses the outputs from the Analyze phase to plan a strategy for developing the instruction.
It may include the following tasks
List the major topics of knowledge or skills you expect students to study ,
What are the learning outcomes for each topic?
What technology should be included in the instruction?

13. Develop
This phase uses the output from the Analyze and Design phases to develop instructional materials. All the media content will also be generated with any supporting documentation.
Questions you need to address:
Who will be involved in the development of the materials?
How much time do you plan to invest in this stage?

14. Implement
This is the phase in which one actually delivers the instruction. The purpose is to ensure the effective and efficient delivery of instruction.
You may need to deal with the following issues:
What's your implementation timeline?
What are the procedures for learner training?
To ensure a smooth and successful delivery, what technology tools are involved?

15. Evaluate
This phase measures the effectiveness and efficiency of the instruction. Evaluation can be either Formative or Summative.
Formative Evaluation is an interactive ongoing evaluation during and between phases. The purpose of this type of evaluation is to improve the instruction before the final version is implemented.
Summative Evaluation usually occurs after the final version of instruction is implemented. The purpose of this type of evaluation is to assess the overall effectiveness of the instruction.

16. Evaluate - continued
How do you know that the learning objectives have been achieved?
What methods do you plan to use to collect data?
How do you plan to analyze the data?

17. Constructivism or Development
Theorists
Assessments
Instructional Strategies
Bransford
Jerome Bruner
Dewey
Grabinger
Lave
Papert
Jean Piaget
Spiro
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
Wenger
The student plans, set time lines and self evaluates. Reflection allows the learners the opportunity to develop, assess, and organize their thoughts.
Assess the learner's current knowledge and experience for the academic content.
Relate content to what students already understand or can do.
The emphasis is placed on the student rather than the teacher. Teachers are seen as facilitators or coaches . Break a task into small tasks with intermittent feedback.
Use verbal cues and prompts to assist students.
Constructivism is a perspective on learning focused on how students actively create (or construct) knowledge out of experiences. The main idea is that a person learns by mentally organizing and reorganizing new information or experiences. The organization happens partly by relating new experiences to prior knowledge that is already meaningful and well understood.

18. (McLeod, 2012)
Student autonomy and initiative are encouraged. Respect students’ ideas and independent thinking. Teachers help students attain their intellectual potential as students take responsibility for their own learning. Teachers ask essential questions to challenge students to make connections, analyze, predict, justify and defend their ideas. The class use raw data, primary sources, manipulatives, physical and interactive materials. Involve students in real-world situations. Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts.

19. Conclusions
An understanding and incorporation of learning theory is needed when designing instruction because it adds focus and direction to the process. Instructional designers should address their goals and intentions of designing instruction in order to best incorporate learning theory within their programs. This requires considering the learner’s needs and characteristics, content and context, the strengths and weaknesses of the learning theory considering the scope of the instruction as well as the designer’s own intentions, preferences, and expectations.

20. References Cognitive Design Solutions. (2003). What is cognitive design? Retrieved from Dabbagh, N. (2015). The instructional design knowledge base. George Mason University, Instructional Technology Program. Retrieved from Instructional Design Central. (2012). Instructional design models. Retrieved from McLeod, S. A. (2012). Zone of Proximal Development. Retrieved from Ryder, M. (2014). Instructional design models. University of Colorado at Denver: School of education Retrieved from