1. Unit 7 Part Ia : Memory (Cognition)
CHS AP Psychology
Unit 7 Part Ia : Memory (Cognition)
Essential Task 7.2:
Outline principles that help improve memory functioning at each stage:
encoding - attention, chunking, serial positioning effect, deep versus shallow processing, and rote rehearsal
storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal, spacing effect, method of loci, and link method
retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive interference
Logo Green is R=8 G=138 B= Blue is R= 0 G=110 B=184
Border Grey is R=74 G=69 B=64

2. Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:

3. Sensory Memories
The shortest retention of all memory stores IF not rehearsed.
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long

4. Decay Theory
The decay theory argues that the passage of time causes forgetting.
The longer information is not accessed, increases the chances of forgetting it.

5. Working Memory Working memory is a new name for short-term memory
has a limited capacity (7±2)
short duration (20 seconds)
When working on its own without help from the Long Term Memory (LTM)

6. Capacity M U T G I K T L R S Y P
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956).
M U T G I K T L R S Y P
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller

7. The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. Would have to repeat consonant chunks without rehearsal, and the further the time went when they were allowed to repeat, the less they were able to remember.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541 …
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

8. Working Memory Duration

9. Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store.
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

10. Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). It’s a long-lasting change in the structure or function of a synapse that increases the efficiency of neural transmission.

11. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
LTP is the physical basis for learning:
Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning
Mice engineered to lack an enzyme needed for LTP can’t learn their way out of a maze

12. Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events

13. Types of Long Term Memory
Explicit memory
Memory for information we can readily express and are aware of having
This information can be intentionally recalled
Episodic Memories - Memories for personal events in a specific time and place
Semantic Memories - Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time

14. Types of Long Term Memory
Implicit memory
Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having
Cannot be intentionally retrieved
Procedural memories: Motor skills and habits
Emotional memories: Learned emotional responses to various stimuli
@#$!&

15. Where Are Memories Stored?

16. Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.

17. Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery

18. Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.

19. Maintaining Long-Term Memory
Rote rehearsal
Repetition can result in long-term memory
Only effective if there is intent to learn material
Example: What does a penny look like?
The accurate picture is the one third from the left. Most people will get this wrong because although they have seen a lot of pennies, they never pay attention so they never learn.

20. Maintaining Long-Term Memory
Elaborative rehearsal
Process of relating new information to information already stored in memory
Meaning is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

21. Link Method
First imagine a silly, memorable image that represents the type of list you want to remember. Also include in this image the first item on the list (see below for example). This image is your header for the list.
Think of another silly, memorable image that links the first item on the list to the second item and so on.

22. Activity Close your eyes
Count the number of windows you have in your house

23. Method of Loci (Places)
Most of you used the method of Loci to “walk through” your house in your mind and count the windows

24. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.

25. Measures of Memory
Recognition: Identifying the item among other choices
Recall: retrieve information with effort
Relearning: the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time

26. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
hose
Fire Truck
fire
OBJECTIVE 15| Explain how retrieval cues help us access stored memories, and describe the process of priming.
smoke
truck
heat
red

27. Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

28. Where and when matters: Context Effects
Situational factors
Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned
State-dependent memory
Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned

29. Déjà Vu
Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

30. Parallel Processing
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you can almost recall something, but can’t quite get it.
If you leave it your brain will continue to work on this problem eventually surfacing with the answer.
Thus you later yell out the name of the actor and everyone looks at you like you are odd.

31. Interference Retroactive interference
Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory
Retro means old
In this term the old information is being tested
Thus the new information is doing the interference.

32. Try remembering the following number
Ok that was easy because nothing interfered with you.

33. Now let’s try some interference
Try remembering this number
What was the first number I had you remember?

34. Retroactive Interference
This is an example of retro-active interference
The OLD (retro) information was being tested.
So, what type of music should you listen to when you write an essay?
Yep, music with NO LYRICS!

35. Retroactive Interference
Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall.

36. Interference Proactive interference
This is when new information is being tested.
The old information already in your LTM interferes.
It is tough to teach an experienced show dog new tricks.
Psychologists have found that recall of later items can be improved by making them distinctive from early items.
For example, people being fed groups of numbers to remember did much better when they were suddenly fed a group of words instead. This is called release from proactive interference

37. learned
OBJECTIVE 21| Contrast proactive and retroactive interference, and explain how they can cause retrieval failure.

38. I need a volunteer that knows their colors.
Don’t read the words, just say the colors they’re printed in and as fast as you can
This is called the stroop effect

39. Red Yellow Green Blue

40. Interference
When you look at the words you see both its color and meaning.
When they are in conflict you must make a choice
Experience has taught you that word meaning is more important than color so you retrieve that information.
You are not always in complete control of what you pay attention to.

41. Schemata
A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience
Incoming information is fit with existing schemata
Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event
Reconstruction
Memories can be altered with each retrieval
We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our environment