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Chapter 5
Memory
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What Is Memory?
Human memory is an information-processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information.
Key Question 5.1: What is memory?
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What Is Memory?
Memory
A cognitive system that processes, encodes, and stores the information we learn and later allows us to retrieve it
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Metaphors for Memory
Human memory is not like a video recorder. Human memory is an interpretive system, much like an artist.
Reconstructive process
Unique “perception” of events
Information undergoes systematic changes as it is processed.
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5. Human Memory Is Good at Remembering Information:
On which attention is focused
In which we are interested
That arouses us emotionally
That fits with our previous experiences
That we rehearse
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6. Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
Storage
Access and Retrieval
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7. Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Access and Retrieval
Select stimulus from vast array of input
Modification of the information to fit the preferred format for the memory system
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8. Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Access and Retrieval
Retention of encoded material over time
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9. Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Access and Retrieval
The location and recovery of information from memory
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How Do We Form Memories?
Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way, but all three work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning.
Key Question 5.2: How do we form memories?
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11. The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
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12. The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second.
Try to remember as many letters as you can.
How do we form memories?
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D J B
X H G
C L Y
How do we form memories?
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14. The First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall?
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D J B
X H G
C L Y
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16. Characteristics of Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Briefly holds information awaiting entry into working memory
Sensory images; no meaningful encoding
Holds twelve to sixteen items
Lasts from one-quarter of a second to a few seconds
Separate sensory registers for each sense
How do we form memories?
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17. Multiple Sensory Stores
Figure 5.4
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18. The First Stage: Sensory Memory
Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of neural activity in the sense organs.
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19. Characteristics of Working Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Involved in control of attention
Attaches meaning to stimulation
Makes associations among ideas and events
Encodes information with meaning for long-term storage
Capacity of 7 + or – 2 chunks of information
Information stored for about twenty seconds in duration
Rehearsal leads to longer duration
Acoustic encoding
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20. Encoding and Storage in Working Memory
Chunking
Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
Figure 5.5
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21. Types of Rehearsal in Working Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading.
Elaborative Rehearsal
Information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM.
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22. Components of Working Memory
Central executive: directs attention to input
Phonological loop: temporarily stores sounds
Sketchpad: stores/manipulates visual images
Episodic buffer: helps to remember events
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23. A Model of Working Memory
Figure 5.6 A Model of Working Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s original model divided memory into three stages. Events must first be processed by sensory memory and short-term memory (now called working memory) before they finally go into long-term memory storage—from which they can later be retrieved back into working memory. Baddeley’s (2003) updated version of working memory includes a central executive that directs attention, a sketchpad for visual and spatial information, a phonological loop for sounds, and an episodic buffer that can combine many kinds of information into memories of events. This drawing includes all of these refinements to the original model of working memory. Source: Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417–423.
Figure 5.6
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24. Levels of Processing in Working Memory
Information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered.
Figure 5.7
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25. The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Long-term storage of information
Meaningful mental categories
Unlimited capacity
Unlimited duration
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26. Types of Information in Long-Term Memory
Procedural Memory
Stores memories for how things are done
Declarative Memory
Stores explicit information; Includes episodic and semantic memory
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27. Subdivisions of Declarative Memory
Episodic Memory
Stores personal events, or “episodes”
Semantic Memory
Stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts
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Figure 5.8 Components of Long-Term Memory Declarative memory involves knowing specific information—knowing “what.” It stores facts, personal experiences, language, concepts—things about which we might say, “I remember!” Procedural memory involves knowing “how”—particularly motor skills and behavioral learning.
Figure 5.8
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29. The Biological Basis of Long-Term Memory
Engram
The physical changes associated with a memory trace
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to remember information previously stored in memory
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30. How Do We Retrieve Memories?
Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued.
Key Question 5.3: How do we retrieve memories?
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31. How Do We Retrieve Memories?
Implicit Memory
Not deliberately learned; that of which you have no conscious awareness
Explicit Memory
Processed with attention; can be consciously recalled
How do we retrieve memories?
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Retrieval Cues
Stimuli used to bring a memory to consciousness or to cue a behavior
Priming
Providing cues that stimulate memories without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory
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33. Retrieving Explicit Information
Gist
The sense or meaning, as contrasted with exact details
Recall
Retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information
Recognition
Retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented
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34. Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
Most of our memory problems arise from memory’s “seven sins,” which are really byproducts of otherwise adaptive features of human memory.
Key Question 5.4: Why does memory sometimes fail us?
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Memory’s “Seven Sins”
Transience
Absent-Mindedness
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence
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Transience
The impermanence of a long-term memory: long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time.
Relearning
Savings method
Forgetting curve
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Absent-Mindedness
Forgetting caused by lapses in attention
An attentive shift leads to retrieval failure
E.g., change blindness
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Blocking
Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved
E.g., forgetting a familiar person’s name
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Misattribution
Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person.
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Suggestibility
Process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
Misinformation effect
Fabricated memories
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Bias
An attitude, belief, emotion, or experience that distorts memories
Expectancy bias
Self-consistency bias
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Persistence
Memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind
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43. The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” of Memory
Despite the grief they cause us, the “seven sins” may actually be byproducts of adaptive features of memory.
Absent-mindedness is the byproduct of the useful ability to shift our attention.
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44. Using Psychology to Learn Psychology
Make the material meaningful.
Spread learning over time.
Minimize interference.
Review and elaborate material.
Test yourself with retrieval cues.
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