1. Bones and Skeletal Tissues: Part B6
Bones and Skeletal Tissues: Part B

2. Osteogenesis or ossification —bone tissue formation
*Bone Development
Osteogenesis or ossification —bone tissue formation
Stages
Bone formation—begins in the 2nd month of development
Postnatal bone growth—until early adulthood
Bone remodeling and repair—lifelong

3. *Two Types of Ossification
Intramembranous ossification
Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane
Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones
Endochondral ossification
Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
Forms most of the rest of the skeleton

9. Mesenchymal cell Collagen fiber Ossification center Osteoid Osteoblast1
Ossification centers appear in the fibrous connective tissue membrane.
• Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an ossification center.
Figure 6.8, (1 of 4)

10. Newly calcified bone matrix
Osteoblast
Osteoid
Osteocyte
Newly calcified bone matrix 2
Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the fibrous membrane and calcifies. • Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is calcified within a few days.
• Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes.
Figure 6.8, (2 of 4)

11. Mesenchyme condensing to form the periosteum
Trabeculae of woven bone
Blood vessel 3
Woven bone and periosteum form. • Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic blood vessels in a random manner. The result is a network (instead of lamellae) of trabeculae called woven bone.
• Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the external face of the woven bone and becomes the periosteum.
Figure 6.8, (3 of 4)

12. Diploë (spongy bone) cavities contain red marrow
Fibrous periosteum
Osteoblast
Plate of compact bone
Diploë (spongy bone) cavities contain red marrow 4
Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep to the periosteum. Red marrow appears.
• Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, and are later replaced with mature lamellar bone, forming compact bone plates.
• Spongy bone (diploë), consisting of distinct trabeculae, per- sists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red marrow.
Figure 6.8, (4 of 4)

13. *Endochondral Ossification
Uses hyaline cartilage models
Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification

14. Childhood to adolescence
Week 9
Month 3
Birth
Childhood to adolescence
Articular cartilage
Secondary ossification center
Spongy bone
Epiphyseal blood vessel
Area of deteriorating cartilage matrix
Epiphyseal plate cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Medullary cavity
Spongy bone formation
Bone collar
Blood vessel of periosteal bud
Primary ossification center 1
Bone collar forms around hyaline cartilage model.
Cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities. 2
The periosteal bud inavades the internal cavities and spongy bone begins to form. 3
The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms as ossification continues. Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5. 4
The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages. 5
Figure 6.9

15. Primary ossification center
Week 9
Hyaline cartilage
Bone collar
Primary ossification center
Bone collar forms around hyaline cartilage model. 1
Figure 6.9, step 1

16. Area of deteriorating cartilage matrix2
Cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities.
Figure 6.9, step 2

17. Blood vessel of periosteal bud
Month 3
Spongy bone formation
Blood vessel of periosteal bud 3
The periosteal bud inavades the internal cavities and spongy bone begins to form.
Figure 6.9, step 3

18. Epiphyseal blood vessel Secondary ossification center
Birth
Epiphyseal blood vessel
Secondary ossification center
Medullary cavity
The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms as ossification continues. Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5. 4
Figure 6.9, step 4

19. Childhood to adolescence
Articular cartilage
Spongy bone
Epiphyseal plate cartilage
The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages. 5
Figure 6.9, step 5

20. Childhood to adolescence
Week 9
Month 3
Birth
Childhood to adolescence
Articular cartilage
Secondary ossification center
Spongy bone
Epiphyseal blood vessel
Area of deteriorating cartilage matrix
Epiphyseal plate cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Medullary cavity
Spongy bone formation
Bone collar
Blood vessel of periosteal bud
Primary ossification center 1
Bone collar forms around hyaline cartilage model.
Cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities. 2
The periosteal bud inavades the internal cavities and spongy bone begins to form. 3
The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms as ossification continues. Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5. 4
The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages. 5
Figure 6.9

21. *Postnatal Bone Growth
Interstitial growth:
 length of long bones
Appositional growth:
 thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces

22. Growth in Length of Long Bones
Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones:
Proliferation (growth)
Hypertrophic
Calcification
Ossification (osteogenic)

23. Cartilage cells undergo mitosis.
Resting zone
Proliferation zone
Cartilage cells undergo
mitosis. 1
Hypertrophic zone
Older cartilage cells
enlarge. 2
Calcification zone
Matrix becomes calcified;
cartilage cells die; matrix
begins deteriorating. 3
Calcified cartilage
spicule
Osteoblast depositing
bone matrix
Ossification zone
New bone formation is
occurring.
Osseous tissue
(bone) covering
cartilage spicules 4
Figure 6.10

24. *Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth
Growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate activity
Thyroid hormone modulates activity of growth hormone
Testosterone and estrogens (at puberty)
Promote adolescent growth spurts
End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure

25. Bone growth Bone remodeling Articular cartilage Cartilage grows here.
Epiphyseal plate
Cartilage
is replaced
by bone here.
Bone is
resorbed here.
Cartilage
grows here.
Bone is added
by appositional
growth here.
Cartilage
is replaced
by bone here.
Bone is
resorbed here.
Figure 6.11

26. *Bone Deposit
Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed
Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D, and A; calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and manganese

27. Sites of new matrix deposit are revealed by the
Bone Deposit
Sites of new matrix deposit are revealed by the
Osteoid seam
Unmineralized band of matrix
Calcification front
The abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone

28. *Bone Resorption Osteoclasts secrete
Lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix)
Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms)
Dissolved matrix is moved across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood

29. *Control of Remodeling
What controls continual remodeling of bone?
Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood
Mechanical and gravitational forces

30. *Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
Calcium is necessary for
Transmission of nerve impulses
Muscle contraction
Blood coagulation
Secretion by glands and nerve cells
Cell division

31. *Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Blood Ca2+ levels drop 
Parathyroid glands release PTH
PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood
increases Blood Ca2+ levels

32. Stimulus Thyroid gland Osteoclasts Parathyroid degrade bone glands
Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 ml
BALANCE
BALANCE
Stimulus
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels
Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone
matrix and
release Ca2+
into blood.
Parathyroid
glands
Parathyroid
glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
PTH
Figure 6.12

33. *Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
May be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin
Blood Ca2+ levels are high 
Parafollicular cells of thyroid release calcitonin
Osteoblasts deposit calcium salts from blood into bone
decreases Blood Ca2+ levels
Leptin has also been shown to influence bone density by inhibiting osteoblasts

34. Response to Mechanical Stress
Wolff’s law: A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it
Observations supporting Wolff’s law:
Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of one upper limb being thicker and stronger
Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle
Trabeculae form along lines of stress
Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach

35. Load here (body weight)
Head of
femur
Tension
here
Compression
here
Point of
no stress
Figure 6.13

36. *Classification of Bone Fractures
Bone fractures may be classified by four “either/or” classifications:
Position of bone ends after fracture:
Nondisplaced—ends retain normal position
Displaced—ends out of normal alignment
Completeness of the break
Complete—broken all the way through
Incomplete—not broken all the way through

37. *Classification of Bone Fractures
Orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone:
Linear—parallel to long axis of the bone
Transverse—perpendicular to long axis of the bone
Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin:
Compound (open)—bone ends penetrate the skin
Simple (closed)—bone ends do not penetrate the skin

38. *Common Types of Fractures
All fractures can be described in terms of
Location
External appearance
Nature of the break
Bone fractures are treated by 2 basic steps
Reduction - Realignment of the bone
Immobilization – Holds it in position until healed

39. Table 6.2

40. Table 6.2

41. Table 6.2

42. *Stages in Fracture Healing
Four Basic Steps
1. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
2. Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone within 1 week

43. *Fracture Healing
3. Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus. Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months
4. Bone Remodeling Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch in response to mechanical stressors over several months

44. Hematoma 1
A hematoma forms.
Figure 6.15, step 1

45. 2 External callus Internal callus (fibrous tissue and cartilage)
New blood vessels
Spongy bone trabecula
Fibrocartilaginous callus forms. 2
Figure 6.15, step 2

46. Bony callus of spongy bone3
Bony callus forms.
Figure 6.15, step 3

47. Healed fracture 4
Bone remodeling occurs.
Figure 6.15, step 4

48. Bony callus of spongy bone
Hematoma
External callus
Bony callus of spongy bone
Internal callus (fibrous tissue and cartilage)
New blood vessels
Healed fracture
Spongy bone trabecula 1
A hematoma forms. 2
Fibrocartilaginous callus forms. 3
Bony callus forms. 4
Bone remodeling occurs.
Figure 6.15

49. *Vertebral Column Transmits weight of trunk to lower limbs
Surrounds and protects spinal cord
Flexible curved structure containing 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)
Cervical vertebrae (7)—vertebrae of the neck
Thoracic vertebrae (12)—vertebrae of the thoracic cage
Lumbar vertebrae (5)—vertebra of the lower back
Sacrum—bone inferior to the lumbar vertebrae
Coccyx—terminus of vertebral column

50. *Vertebral Column: Curvatures
Increase the resilience and flexibility of the spine
Two posteriorly concave curvatures
Cervical and lumbar
Two posteriorly convex curvatures
Thoracic and sacral
Abnormal spine curvatures
Scoliosis (abnormal lateral curve)
Kyphosis (hunchback)
Lordosis (swayback)

56. Figure 7.16 C1 Cervical curvature (concave) 7 vertebrae, C1–C7 Spinous
process
Transverse
processes
Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1–T12
Intervertebral
discs
Intervertebral
foramen
Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5
Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Anterior view
Right lateral view
Figure 7.16

57. *Intervertebral Discs
Cushionlike pad composed of two parts
Nucleus pulposus
Inner gelatinous nucleus that gives the disc its elasticity and compressibility
Anulus fibrosus
Outer collar composed of collagen and fibrocartilage

58. Supraspinous ligament
Intervertebral
disc
Supraspinous ligament
Transverse process
Anterior
longitudinal
ligament
Sectioned
spinous process
Intervertebral foramen
Ligamentum flavum
Posterior longitudinal
ligament
Interspinous
ligament
Anulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
Inferior articular process
Sectioned body
of vertebra
Median section of three vertebrae, illustrating the composition of the discs and the ligaments
Figure 7.17a

59. Vertebral spinous process (posterior aspect of vertebra)
Spinal cord
Spinal nerve root
Transverse
process
Herniated portion
of disc
Anulus fibrosus
of disc
Nucleus
pulposus
of disc
(c) Superior view of a herniated intervertebral disc
Figure 7.17c

60. General Structure of Vertebrae
Body or centrum
Anterior weight-bearing region
Vertebral arch
Composed of pedicles and laminae that, along with centrum, enclose vertebral foramen
Vertebral foramina
Together make up vertebral canal for spinal cord
Intervertebral foramina
Lateral openings between adjacent vertebrae for spinal nerves

61. General Structure of Vertebrae
Seven processes per vertebra:
Spinous process—projects posteriorly
Transverse processes (2)—project laterally
Superior articular processes (2)—protrude superiorly inferiorly
Inferior articular processes (2)—protrude inferiorly
PLAY
Animation: Rotatable Spine (horizontal)
PLAY
Animation: Rotatable Spine (vertical)

62. Posterior Vertebral Lamina arch Spinous Transverse process process
Superior
articular
process
and
facet
Vertebral
foramen
Pedicle
Body
(centrum)
Anterior
Figure 7.18

63. C1 to C7: smallest, lightest vertebrae
Cervical Vertebrae
C1 to C7: smallest, lightest vertebrae
C3 to C7 share the following features
Oval body
Spinous processes are bifid (except C7)
Large, triangular vertebral foramen
Transverse foramen in each transverse process

64. Table 7.2

65. (a) Cervical vertebrae
Dens of axis
Transverse ligament
of atlas
C1 (atlas)
C2 (axis) C3
Inferior articular
process
Bifid spinous
process
Transverse processes
C7 (vertebra
prominens)
(a) Cervical vertebrae
Figure 7.20a

66. C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features Atlas (C1)
Cervical Vertebrae
C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features
Atlas (C1)
No body or spinous process
Consists of anterior and posterior arches, and two lateral masses
Superior surfaces of lateral masses articulate with the occipital condyles

67. *Disorders associated with Homeostatic Imbalances
Osteomalacia and rickets
Calcium salts not deposited
Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities
Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium

68. Rickets

72. *Disorders associated with Homeostatic Imbalances
Osteoporosis
Loss of bone mass—bone resorption outpaces deposit
Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture
Risk factors
Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus

73. Figure 6.16

74. *Osteoporosis: Treatment and Prevention
Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements
 Weight-bearing exercise throughout life
Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss
Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density

75. *Paget’s Disease
Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull
Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization
Unknown cause (possibly viral)
Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates

76. Paget’s Disease

77. Paget’s Disease

78. Paget’s Disease – 67 year old man’s tibia

79. Paget’s Disease

80. Developmental Aspects of Bones
Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably so fetal age easily determined from X rays or sonograms
At birth, most long bones are well ossified (except epiphyses)

81. Parietal bone Occipital bone Frontal bone of skull Mandible Clavicle
Scapula
Radius
Ulna
Ribs
Humerus
Vertebra
Ilium
Tibia
Femur
Figure 6.17

82. *Developmental Aspects of Bones
Nearly all bones completely ossified by age 25
Bone mass decreases with age beginning in 4th decade
Rate of loss determined by genetics and environmental factors
In old age, bone resorption predominates

83. Bones are joined by sutures
The Skull
Two sets of bones
Cranium
Facial bones
Bones are joined by sutures
Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint

84. The Skull

85. The Bones of the Skull

86. Human Skull, Superior View
Figure 5.8
Slide 5.23
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

87. Human Skull, Inferior View

88. Fetal Skull vs. Adult Skull
The infant’s face is small compared to the size of the cranium
The adult skull represents 1/8 of the body length, where the newborn infants represents 1/4 of the body length

89. Fetal Skull vs. Adult Skull
*Newborn has fontanels (soft spots) where the skull has not calcified
To allow for compression during birth
To allow for brain growth