1. Exception to rules on free trade
Need to strike a balance between free trade and other values. Member can justify measures incompatible with WTO Agreements under the different exceptions provided for in the Agreements.
Similar rules in the GATT 1994 and in the GATS.

2. Exceptions (II)
Article XX GATT: general exception: it is exhaustive and conditional, but it is not narrowly construed by the Appellate Body that tries to find a balancing between the general rule and the exception (measures that undermine the multilateral trading system? US-Shrimp).
Test:
existence of one of the exceptions under Article XX a)-j);
consistency with the chapeau of Article XX.

3. Exceptions (III) Article XX
Subject to the requirement that such measures are not
applied in a manner which would constitute a means of
arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries
where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised
restriction on international trade, nothing in this Agreement
shall be construed to prevent the adoption or enforcement
by any contracting party of measures…

4. Exceptions (IV) Article XX GATT: Public morals;
Human, animal or plant life and health;
National treasures of artistic, historic,or archaeological value;
Conservation of exhaustible natural resources;
restrictions on exports of domestic materials
necessary to ensure essential quantities of such
materials to a domestic processing industry

5. Exceptions (V) Other exceptions:
security exceptions (Art. XXI GATT and Art. XIV bis GATS); essential security interests and international peace and security;
economic emergency exceptions (Art. XIX GATT and Agreement on Safeguards); serious injury or threat of injury to domestic producers;
balance of payment exceptions;
economic development exceptions.

6. Exceptions (VI)
Regional integration exceptions (Art. XXIV GATT)  customs unions, free trade areas as defined in Art. XXIV and necessity of the WTO-inconsistent measure for the establishment of the regional agreement  previous notification to the Council for Trade in Goods.

7. TRIPs Agreement
Close connection between international trade and protection of IP rights.
Lack of protection of IP rights = restriction of trade.
Abuse of IP rights = restriction of trade.

8. Article 7 Objectives
The protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights should contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.

9. Article 8 Principles
1. Members may, in formulating or amending their laws and regulations, adopt measures necessary to protect public health and nutrition, and to promote the public interest in sectors of vital importance to their socio-economic and technological development, provided that such measures are consistent with the provisions of this Agreement.
2. Appropriate measures, provided that they are consistent with the provisions of this Agreement, may be needed to prevent the abuse of intellectual property rights by right holders or the resort to practices which unreasonably restrain trade or adversely affect the international transfer of technology.

10. Scope of application IP rights (non-exhaustive list):
Copyrights and related rights;
Trademarks;
Geographical indications;
Industrial design;
Patents;
Layout-designs of integrated circuits;
Protection of undisclosed information.

11. Article 1 Nature and Scope of Obligations
1. Members shall give effect to the provisions of this Agreement. Members may, but shall not be obliged to, implement in their law more extensive protection than is required by this Agreement, provided that such protection does not contravene the provisions of this Agreement. Members shall be free to determine the appropriate method of implementing the provisions of this Agreement within their own legal system and practice….

12. General provisions
TRIPs agreement as a minimum level of harmonised IP protection.
Incorporation by reference of the most important conventions in matters of IP rights: Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property ( ); Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works ( ), etc.

13. Article 2 Intellectual Property Conventions
1. In respect of Parts II, III and IV of this Agreement, Members shall comply with Articles 1 through 12, and Article 19, of the Paris Convention (1967).
2. Nothing in Parts I to IV of this Agreement shall derogate from existing obligations that Members may have to each other under the Paris Convention, the Berne Convention, the Rome Convention and the Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits.

14. Article 9 Relation to the Berne Convention
1. Members shall comply with Articles 1 through 21 of the Berne Convention (1971) and the Appendix thereto. However, Members shall not have rights or obligations under this Agreement in respect of the rights conferred under Article 6bis of that Convention or of the rights derived therefrom.

15. National treatment
WTO Members must accord to nationals of other Members treatment no less favourable in matters of IP rights referred to in the TRIPs Agreement.
Fundamental obligation.
De facto discrimination (discrimination on the grounds of residence). “Extra-hurdle”.
Exceptions: reference to the WIPO Conventions.

16. MFN treatment
Any advantage or privilege with regard to IP rights granted by a Member to the nationals of any country must be accorded to the nationals of all other Members.
Such an obligation did not exist under WIPO Conventions.

17. Substantive protection of IP rights
Different rules for the different IP rights.
Reference to the WIPO Conventions.
Transitional period for least-developed-countries (until 2013 up to now).
Exceptions (articles 13, 17, 24, 30 etc.).

18. Enforcement of IP rights: article 41
1. Members shall ensure that enforcement procedures as specified in this Part are available under their law so as to permit effective action against any act of infringement of intellectual property rights covered by this Agreement, including expeditious remedies to prevent infringements and remedies which constitute a deterrent to further infringements. These procedures shall be applied in such a manner as to avoid the creation of barriers to legitimate trade and to provide for safeguards against their abuse.
2. Procedures concerning the enforcement of intellectual property rights shall be fair and equitable. They shall not be unnecessarily complicated or costly, or entail unreasonable time-limits or unwarranted delays.

19. Article 41 (continued)
3. Decisions on the merits of a case shall preferably be in writing and reasoned. They shall be made available at least to the parties to the proceeding without undue delay. Decisions on the merits of a case shall be based only on evidence in respect of which parties were offered the opportunity to be heard.
4. Parties to a proceeding shall have an opportunity for review by a judicial authority of final administrative decisions and, subject to jurisdictional provisions in a Member's law concerning the importance of a case, of at least the legal aspects of initial judicial decisions on the merits of a case. However, there shall be no obligation to provide an opportunity for review of acquittals in criminal cases….