1. Prof. J. T. Spencer Adjunct Prof. T. L. Meeks
Chapter 6 Serology
Prof. J. T. Spencer
Adjunct Prof. T. L. Meeks

2. Learning Goals and Objectives
The study of blood, both of its biochemical composition and its physical fluid properties, can
yield information of critical important to forensic investigations. In order to gain insights into how
blood evidence can provide this valuable information…

3. Learning Goals and Objectives
How blood functions in our bodies and its various components
What is meant by presumptive and confirmatory tests
How blood can be detected and identified as human
How immunoassays work
What blood types are and how they work

4. Learning Goals and Objectives
The hereditary patterns of blood types
What is meant by blood pattern analysis
How events can be understood through blood pattern analysis
How other body fluids can be used in forensic science

5. Blood
A hundred years ago, the legal world was desperately seeking some unique marker that could unambiguously tie a particular individual with a sample collected at a crime scene.
The best technique at the time for doing this, fingerprinting, had both its successes and serious limitations.
After a landmark discovery by Karl Landsteiner in 1901, however, attention turned to the analysis of blood

6. Blood
A complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins & inorganic substances
Fluid portion of blood is called the plasma (55% of blood content)
primarily water
Red cells (erythrocytes)
White cells (leukocytes)
Platelets (thrombocytes)

7. Blood Properties Accounts for about 8 % of total body weight.
5 to 6 liters of blood for males.
4 to 5 liters of blood for females.
A 40 percent blood volume loss, internally or/and externally, is required to produce irreversible shock (death).
A blood loss of 1.5 liters, internally or externally, is required to cause incapacitation.

8. Blood
Many Components: Human Red Blood Cells (in red), Platelets (yellow) and T-lymphocyte (light green) [also contains waste products, enzymes, etc.].

9. Red Blood Cells Transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues
Transport carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs
Red cells possess chemical structures on their surfaces called antigens or agglutinogens
impart blood type characteristics

10. Forensic Blood Analysis
Blood ID (“Is it blood”?).
Blood origin (human or other source).
Blood Type.
Blood Spatter Analysis.

11. Forensic Blood Analysis
Blood ID (“Is it blood”?).
Luminol Test. Rx of luminol w/ blood produces a complex which can be seen by luminescence.
Very sensitive - up to a 3,000,000 dilution of blood can be seen.
Detects unseen samples and patterns.
Does not interfere with later DNA testing.

12. Forensic Blood Analysis
Blood ID (“Is it blood”?).
Presumptive Test
An analysis that suggests blood could be present
Fast and relatively sensitive
Confirmatory Test
An experiment that can indicate the presence of blood with a high degree of certainty

13. Forensic Blood Analysis
Blood ID (“Is it blood”?).
Blood origin (human or other source).
Precipitin Test - When animals are injected w/ human blood they form antibodies to the human blood. Can isolate human antiserum (antibodies to human blood).
Human antiserum will react with human blood.
Antiserum can (has) been made similarly for many other animals.
Works on old (dried for many years) and small samples of blood.

14. Forensic Blood Analysis
Blood ID (“Is it blood”?).
Blood origin (human or other source).
Blood Type.
ABO and Rh testing.
Additional blood groupings
Enzyme presence (many possible enzymes can be determined that are genetically controlled).

15. Blood Types Karl Landsteiner, 1900
Noted that when blood from different people is mixed it sometimes forms precipitate - deadly if mixed in body. Explored why.
Blundell's blood transfusion apparatus, 19th century

17. Relative Frequency of Blood Types in Human Populations

18. Forensic Blood Analysis
Blood ID (“Is it blood”?).
Blood origin (human or other source).
Blood Type.
Blood Spatter Analysis.

19. Blood Spatter Analysis
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: the examination of the shapes, locations, and distribution patterns of bloodstains, in order to provide an interpretation of the physical events which gave rise to their origin.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis can be used to:
Confirm or refute assumptions concerning events and their sequence: Position of victim (standing, sitting, lying). Evidence of a struggle. (blood smears, blood trails)
Confirm or refute statements made by principals in the case: Are stain patterns on a suspects clothing consistent with his reported actions? Are stain patterns on a victim or at a scene consistent with accounts given by witnesses or the suspect?

20. Bloodstains
Passive
Projected
Transfer

21. Passive Bloodstains
Passive Bloodstains are drops created or formed solely by the force of gravity.
Can be subdivided into drops, drip patterns, pools, and clots.

22. Surface Bloodstains (Passive)
Bloodstains can occur on a variety of surfaces including clothing, carpeting, walls, etc.
The type of surface the blood strikes affects the nature of the observed splatter pattern.
Blood droplets that strike a hard smooth surface (e.g., glass) will have little distortion around the edges of the droplet.
Blood droplets that strike linoleum flooring will often show distortion (scalloping) around the edge of the blood droplets.
Blood droplets striking wood or concrete are distorted to a larger extent (e.g., spines and secondary splatter).
Smooth Linoleum Concrete

23. Transfer Bloodstains
A transfer bloodstain is created when a wet, bloody surface comes in contact with another surface.
Occasionally, a recognizable image of the original surface may be observed in the pattern, such as a hand or shoe pattern.
Subdivided into Contact bleeding, Swipe or Smear, Wipe, and Smudge.

24. Bloodstains Dripped Spilled patterns created by same volume of blood,
from same source to target distance
Projected

25. Projected Bloodstains
Projected bloodstains are created when a blood source is subjected to an action greater than the force of gravity. 
The size, shape, and number of resulting stains will depend on the amount of force utilized to strike the blood source.

26. Projected Bloodstains - Types
Arterial Spurt / Gush - Bloodstain pattern from blood spurt under pressure from a cut artery.
Cast-off Stains - Blood released or thrown from a blood-soaked object in motion.
Impact Spatter - Blood stain patterns created when a blood source receives a blow or force resulting in the random dispersion of smaller drops of blood.
Arterial Cast-Off

27. Projected Bloodstains - Impact
Low Velocity - Gravitational pull up to 5 feet/sec. Relatively large stains 4 mm and greater.
Medium Velocity - Force of 5 to 25 feet/sec. Stain size 1 to 4 mm.
High Velocity - Force of 100 feet/sec. and greater. Stain size 1 mm and smaller (Mist like appearance).
Low Medium High

28. Blood Spatter DIRECTIONALITY OF BLOODSTAINS
When a droplet of blood strikes a surface perpendicular (90 degrees) the resulting bloodstain will be circular.  
Blood that strikes  a  surface at an angle  less than  90 degrees will be elongated or have a tear drop shape.
Directionality is usually obvious as the pointed end of the bloodstain ( tail ) will always point in the direction of travel.

29. IMPACT ANGLE DETERMINATION
ANGLE of IMPACT is the acute angle formed between the direction of the blood drop and the plane of the surface it strikes
By utilizing trigonometric functions its possible to determine the impact angle for any given blood droplet.
SIN θ = opp  (a)
              hyp  (c)

30. Blood Spatter
SIN < = Width  (a) 1.5cm
              Length (c) 3.0cm

31. Blood Spatter 2 Dimensional Analysis
POINT OF CONVERGENCE AND ORIGIN DETERMINATION
2 Dimensional Analysis

32. Blood Spatter 3 Dimensional Analysis
POINT OF CONVERGENCE AND ORIGIN DETERMINATION
3 Dimensional Analysis

33. Blood Spatter
POINT OF CONVERGENCE AND ORIGIN DETERMINATION

34. Cast-off Pattern (1/2)

35. Three overhead swings with hatchet

36. Cast-off & medium velocity spatter

37. Cast-off & medium velocity spatter 2

38. Cast-off Pattern ? Object

39. Cast-off Pattern from Hand

40. Cast-off pattern from bloodied hand swung in front of target
6” ruler

41. Drip Pattern
Free-falling drops dripping into wet blood
Large irregular central stain
Small round & oval satellite stains . . . . . . . . . . .

42. Drip 1:
Blood dripping into itself from height of 1 m (8 drops)

43. Blood dripping into itself from height of 1 m (8 drops)

44. Dripping onto steps

45. Splash Pattern Volume > 1 ml Subjected to LV impact Thrown Tipped
Large central irregular area surrounded by elongated peripheral spatter pattern

46. Splash 1
5 ml blood squirted from a syringe from a height of 1 m

47. 5 mL blood squirted from a
syringe from a height of 1 m
Splash 2 43

48. 5 mL blood squirted from a syringe from a height of 1 m
Splash 3

49. Splash onto vertical surface
10 ml blood thrown 1 m onto
a vertical target surface
6” ruler

50. Stamping in blood 1
Area seen in close-up
in next slide

51. Stamping in blood Close-up of heel area

52. Blood pool (10 drops) before stamping

53. Blood pool (10 drops) after stamping

54. Arterial Spurt Pattern
Blood exiting body under arterial pressure
Large stains with downward flow on vertical surfaces
wave-form of pulsatile flow may be apparent

55. spatter
Small arterial spurt
broken pottery

56. Neck incisions (scene)

57. Wipe Patterns Object moves through a wet bloodstain
Feathered edge suggests direction

58. Transfer Patterns Wet, bloodied object contacts a secondary surface
Transfer from:
hand, fingers
shoes, weapon
hair
Transfer to:
walls, ceilings
clothing, bedding
Produces mirror-image of bloodied object

59. Transfer from hair (hair-swipe) 1

60. Transfer from hair (hair-swipe) 2