1. COMM 122: Micro/Macro Organizational Communication Lecture 3 10/12/09
Dave Seibold
Professor, Department of Communication
Division of Social Sciences (L&S)
Co-Director, Graduate Program in Management Practice
Technology Management Program (CoE)

2. Review Lecture 2 3. Human Relations/Resources School
1. Classical//Traditional School
Frederick W. Taylor - Scientific Management Perspective
(Background, Key Concepts, Stopwatch)
2. Communication in Classical/Traditional School
3. Human Relations/Resources School
6 Key HR Theorists
Shifts in HR (from Classical)
4. Classical vs HR Schools
Persons, World View, Org Key, Issues, Resources, Comm

3. 5 Schools of Organizational Theory
Classical/Traditional School
Human Relations/Resources School
Systems School
Interpretive/Cultural School
Critical School

4. Classical/Traditional School
Frederick W. Taylor – Scientific Management (Taylorism)
Focus on individually-centered structure via job study
“Bottom up” approach to organizational structure
Response to workers’ “soldiering”/managers’ incompetence

5. Classical/Traditional School
Scientific Management (Taylorism)
3 “Attitudes” Underlying Taylor’s Mental Revolution
Scientific design of organizations
Motivation through increased economic rewards
Cooperation between labor & management

6. Classical/Traditional School
Scientific Management (Taylorism)
4 “Principles” for Implementing Scientific Management
Scientific job design – time-motion studies
Scientific selection of workers – match abilities to job
Adequate training & rewards – pay person/not job
Division of labor & responsibilities – functional forepersons

7. Communication in Classical/Traditional School
Emphasizes written channels primarily
Direction downward primarily, often distorted
Little opportunity for input/upward influence
“Trained communication incapacity”

8. Human Relations/Resources School
6 Key HR Theorists
1. Roethlisberger & Dickson: Hawthorne studies
2. Barnard: (Comm.) function of executive
3. Mayo: Social relations among members
4. Simon: Decision-making
5. Hertzberg/Maslow: Worker needs
6. MacGregor: Theory X/Theory Y

9. Human Relations/Resources School
Shifts in HR (from Classical)
1. Focus on relationships
2. Focus on participation
3. Focus on informal communication structures/climate

10. HR (vs Classical) Schools
Classical/Traditional School
Persons = Economically driven, rational beings
World = Mechanistic; machine theory, time-motion studies
Org key = Structure
Issues = Hierarchy, job duties, division of labor, centralization, size & shape, line vs staff
Resources = Money, specialization, rigid hierarchy, rules & regulations, impersonalness
Communication emphasis = Downward communication
HR School
Persons = Goal driven, social beings
World = Social, participative; group norms important
Org key = Social networks, informal groups
Issues = Status, role, social relations, morale, attitude, groups, individual personality
Resources = People, shared authority, participation, job satisfaction
Communication emphasis = Informal communication

11. Preview Lecture 3 Systems School Classical/Traditional School
Human Relations/Resources School
Systems School
Interpretive/Cultural School
Critical School

12. Preview Lecture 3 1. Structure 2. Systems School 6 Theorists
5 Concepts
3. Communication Load & Implications
4. Organizational Environment
4 Types
3 Levels
Enacted Environment/Retrospective Sense-Making
5. Systems (vs Classical vs HR) School

13. Structure Each organization has some DEGREE of the following . . .
Configuration
a. span of control
b. hierarchical level
c. organizational size
Complexity
a. vertical complexity b. horizontal complexity
Formalization
Centralization

14. Structure Evident in all three schools thus far:
Classical/Traditional:
Building block of bureaucracy (Weber), industrial management (Fayol), and scientific management (Taylor)
HR: Linking function between org work groups
Systems: Design of organization, especially as outcome of organizing

15. Systems School 6 Key Theorists (p. 29 of Reader09F)
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
2. Management Theory: Woodward (1965)
3. Biology: Bertalanffy (1962)
4. Engineering/Physics: Shannon & Weaver (1949)
5. Social Psychology: Katz & Kahn (1966)
6. Communication: Farace, Monge & Russell (1977)

16. Systems School 6 Key Theorists
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
To optimize org effectiveness,
mngrs must integrate technical systems and social systems
(not only technical, as in Taylorism
nor only social, as in HR)

17. Systems School Contingency approach --
6 Key Theorists
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
2. Management Theory: Woodward (1965)
Contingency approach --
No ‘best’ organizational structure;
optimal dependent on org’s environment
(i.e., goals and technology in its sector/industry)

18. Systems School 3. Biology: Bertalanffy (1962)
6 Key Theorists
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
2. Management Theory: Woodward (1965)
3. Biology: Bertalanffy (1962)
General systems theory - theory of all systems
System = interdependent parts
Comm = essential (links subparts of system; integrative)
New vocab: input/outputs; feedback; boundary maintenance; membrane

19. Systems School 4. Engineering/Physics: Shannon & Weaver (1949)
6 Key Theorists
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
2. Management Theory: Woodward (1965)
3. Biology: Bertalanffy (1962)
4. Engineering/Physics: Shannon & Weaver (1949)
SMCR + Feedback
Noise (from environment)
Paradigm shift in Communication

20. Systems School Social Psychology: Katz & Kahn (1966) 6 Key Theorists
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
2. Management Theory: Woodward (1965)
3. Biology: Bertalanffy (1962)
4. Engineering/Physics: Shannon & Weaver (1949)
Social Psychology: Katz & Kahn (1966)
Worker Needs: completion/closure, autonomy, contact/comm
Orgs = open systems (psych constructs & responses to environment)
Uncertainty
Control mechanisms
Interdependencies
Goals: stay open but not too open
Organizations not organisms

21. Systems School Comm = process of organizing Orgs exist through comm
6 Key Theorists
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
2. Management Theory: Woodward (1965)
3. Biology: Bertalanffy (1962)
4. Engineering/Physics: Shannon & Weaver (1949)
5. Social Psychology: Katz & Kahn (1966)
6. Communication: Farace, Monge & Russell (1977)
Comm = process of organizing
Orgs exist through comm
Orgs not ‘containers’ for comm; orgs are comm systems

22. Systems School Implications Environment(s) recognized
6 Key Theorists
1. Sociotechnical Systems Theory: Emery & Trist (1960)
2. Management Theory: Woodward (1965)
3. Biology: Bertalanffy (1962)
4. Engineering/Physics: Shannon & Weaver (1949)
5. Social Psychology: Katz & Kahn (1966)
6. Communication: Farace, Monge & Russell (1977)
Implications
Environment(s) recognized
Interdepence(ies) highlighted
Overtime changes & analyses emphasized

23. Systems School 5 Concepts (p. 29 of Reader09F) 1. Interdependence
2. Goals
3. Feedback: deviation-counteracting (morphostasis)
deviation-amplifying (morphogenesis)
4. Environment: entropy (disorder)
negative entropy (lack of disorder)
Law of Requisite Variety
5. Contingency: equifinality (Galbraith)
turbulent/placid environments (Emery & Trist)

24. Systems School 5 Concepts (p. 29 of Reader09F) 1. Interdependence
Primary characteristic of ‘system’
Systems vary in degree of interdependence among nodes (relationships)
Relationships maintained through communication
Ex.: Creating positive interdependencies

25. Systems School 5 Concepts (p. 29 of Reader09F) 2. Goals
Interdependence
2. Goals
Negotiated between/among system components
Importance varies by type of system: tight- vs loose-coupling
May differ across system levels; hierarchical ordering
What is good for one system level may not be good for other levels

26. Systems School
5 Concepts (p. 29 of Reader09F)
1. Interdependence
2. Goals
3. Feedback:
System = interdependent components that interact over time
Feedback = loops that connect comm and action
= expressed as deviation from intended influence
Types = deviation-counteracting feedback (morphostasis)
= deviation-amplifying feedback (morphogenesis)
Both types needed; double loop learning (Argyris, 1978)

27. Systems School 4. Environment:
5 Concepts (p. 29 of Reader09F)
1. Interdependence
2. Goals
3. Feedback
4. Environment:
Interaction w/ environment essential to system survival
Non-interaction w/ environment --> entropy (disorder)
Open system capturing resources to renew = negative entropy (i.e., lack of disorder, or order)
Law of Requisite Variety: the more complex the environment, the more complex the structures needed to enable org to deal w/ environment

28. Systems School 5. Contingency:
5 Concepts (p. 29 of Reader09F)
1. Interdependence
2. Goals
3. Feedback
4. Environment
5. Contingency:
Same organizing principles & solutions not applicable to all situations;
rather, they are contingent upon varying environments (Woodward)
Equifinality: equal but different paths to same goals/end state (Galbraith)
Implications: no one best way to organize;
many ways of organizing may be equally effective;
continent upon environment: e.g., turbulent/placid (Emery & Trist)

29. Systems School Communication Load (p. 41-42 of Reader09F)
I. DEFINITION
Communication load is based on
(a) the rate and
(b) the complexity
of communication inputs to an individual.

30. Systems School Communication Load II. DETERMINANTS
Communication load is determined by
the extent that more judgments must be made in a given time period
the greater the processing effort or speed needed
the higher the quality of processing required
the less predictable inputs are by channel
the less predictable inputs are by content category

31. Systems School Communication Load III. FINDINGS
As load increases, output increases – up to point where capacity is exceeded.
The larger and more complex an organization,
the less efficient it becomes at info processing.

32. Systems School Communication Load IV. (PROBLEMATIC) LEVELS OF LOAD
A. Overload: More inputs than one has capacity or desire to process.
B. Underload: Less/Fewer inputs than one has capacity or desire to process.

33. Systems School Communication Load V. FACTORS AFFECTING LOAD
A. Environment
# of Communication Channels
Hierarchical/Network Role
Span of Control
Coordination Requirements of Job
Physical Layout/Proxemics
B. Processing Capability
C. Desire to Process

34. Systems School Communication Load VI. STRATEGIES
A. For Coping with Underload
B. For Coping with Overload
Minimal Effort
Moderate Effort
Maximum Effort

35. Systems School 2. Comm functions: a. control and coordination
Communication Implications
1. Comm critical: “cement” that holds sub-systems together
(linking function)
2. Comm functions:
a. control and coordination
b. provide info to decision makers
c. adjust org to changes in its environment

36. Systems School Communication Implications (con’t)
3. Directions of comm flow:
a. all directions within the system,
b. including downwards and upward across levels
c. & across org’s boundary w/environment
Comm problems:
a. overload, distortion, and omission
b. unresponsiveness to negative feedback

37. Systems (vs Classical vs HR) School
Classical/Traditional School
Persons = Economically driven, rational beings
World = Mechanistic; machine theory, time-motion studies
Org key = Structure
Issues = Hierarchy, job duties, division of labor, centralization, size & shape, line vs staff
Resources = Money, specialization, rigid hierarchy, rules & regulations, impersonalness
Communication emphasis = Downward communication
HR School
Persons = Goal driven, social beings
World = Social, participative; group norms important
Org key = Social networks, informal groups
Issues = Status, role, social relations, morale, attitude, groups, individual personality
Resources = People, shared authority, participation, job satisfaction
Communication emphasis = Informal communication

38. Systems (vs Classical vs HR) School
Systems School
Persons = Interdependently connected; part of a system
How World Operates = Wheels w/in wheels; interdependent systems w/in larger environment
Org Key =
Issues =
Resources =
Communication emphasis =

39. Systems (vs Classical vs HR) School
Systems School
Persons = Interdependently connected; part of a system
World = Wheels w/in wheels; interdependent systems w/in larger environment
Key Characteristic of Org = Interdependence
Issues = Input, output, transformation, feedback, equilibrium, steady state
Resources =
Communication emphasis =

40. Systems (vs Classical vs HR) School
Systems School
Persons = Interdependently connected; part of a system
World = Wheels w/in wheels; interdependent systems w/in larger environment
Org Key = Interdependence
Issues = Input, output, transformation, feedback, equilibrium, steady state
Resources Available to Deal w/Problems = Input, feedback, process (transformation), information
Communication emphasis = Linking function

41. Systems (vs Classical vs HR) School
Systems School
Persons = Interdependently connected; part of a system
World = Wheels w/in wheels; interdependent systems w/in larger environment
Org Key = Interdependence
Issues = Input, output, transformation, feedback, equilibrium, steady state
Resources = Input, feedback, process (transformation), information
Communication = Linking function

42. Systems School Organizational Environment (p. 31 of Reader09F)
Emery & Trist’s 4 “Types” of Org. Environments
1. Placid-Randomized
2. Placid-Clustered
3. Disturbed-Reactive
4. Turbulent

43. Systems School Organizational Environment
Pfeffer & Salancik’s 3 “Levels” of Org. Environment
1. System of indivs/orgs related to one another (& a focal org.) through the org’s transactions.
2. Set of indivs/orgs with whom org interacts.
3. Perceptions/representation of “environment” by org/members (i.e., enacted environment).

44. Systems School Organizational Environment
Weick’s Concept of (Enacted) Environment viz “Retrospective Sense-Making”
1. Equivocality reduction via enactment, selection, retention (model)
2. Environmental “enactment” as a process of retrospective “sense making” by org.members.
3. “Loose coupling” as an adaptation to turbulence in enacted environment.