1. Natural Resources
Energy

2. Fossil Fuels

3. Fossil Fuels Our Principal Industrial Energy Source
Fundamental to the U. S. Economy
88% of our energy needs are met by coal, oil, & natural gas

4. Fossil Fuels The Historical Development of Fossil Fuels
Coal mining began 8 centuries ago on the north coast of England
The use of fossil fuels was negligible before 1800

5. The General Depletion Picture Oil & Natural Gas Liquids 2003 Base Case Scenario

6. Oil And Natural Gas The Natural Occurrence of Oil and Gas
Both resources require that some sort of geologic trap exist

7. Oil And Natural Gas Oil Field Sizes
Oil fields range from supergiant (>5 billion bbls) to small (5 million bbls)
Few undiscovered supergiant or giants are believed to remain
Seems virtually certain they have all been found in the U.S.

8. http://www. worldoil. com/magazine/magazine_link. asp
Global distribution of 592 giant oil fields plotted on topographic-bathymetric world map. Yellow boxes indicate concentrations of giant oil fields shown in detailed figures. A) Alaska; B) Rocky Mountain foreland; C) Southern California; D) Permian and Anadarko basins; E) Gulf of Mexico; F) Northern South America; G) Brazil; H) North Sea; I) North Africa; J) West Africa; K) Arabian Peninsula / Persian Gulf; L) Black Sea; m) Caspian Sea; N) Ural Mountains; O) West Siberia; P) Siberia; Q) China; R) Sunda; S) Australia; T) Bass Strait / Australia / Tasmania

9. Top 20 Oil Reserves

10. Top 20 Oil Reserves

11. Top 20 Oil Consumers

12. Top 20 Oil Consumers

14. (U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1118 )
Map of lower 48 States showing location of continuous-type plays for oil and gas in sandstones, shales, and chalks
(U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1118 )

15. Oil And Natural Gas Getting Oil Out of the Ground Exploration
Secure drilling rights
Drilling
Pumping
Processing

16. After drilling, a cement mixture is pumped into the ‘payzone” and left to harden. Once hard, the cement zone is perforated.
Drilling

17. Oil And Natural Gas Oil Recovery Ranges from 10 to 80%
The industry average is 30%
Secondary Recovery
This is mostly water or natural gas injection
Raises recovery 2 to 10%

18. Oil And Natural Gas Tertiary recovery is rarely done
in situ heating by burning or detergent injection are used

19. Oil And Natural Gas
U.S. oil production will continue to fall as the resource declines
Year 2000 PRODUCTION = 5x106 bbls/day CONSUMPTION = 16 to 17x106 bbls/day

20. Oil And Natural Gas Suppliers of Petroleum to the U. S.
Importer nations must go to those who have oil regardless of politics
Dependence on oil has forced reliance on distant sources as domestic resources fall
Industrial powers now rely on politically unstable nations

21. Oil And Natural Gas A Brief History of OPEC
Founded around 1960 by Venezuela because oil companies paid so little for the oil they extracted
Other nations joined because their huge oil resources generated so little money
In the early 1970's U.S. inefficiency forced us to switch from exporter to importer
The Shah of Iran urged price increases
OPEC production has fallen since 1977

22. Oil And Natural Gas Oil Shales
20% of the U.S. is underlain by oil shale
The Green River Formation of Colorado, Utah & Wyoming
covers 17,000 sq. miles and has 2 x 1012 bbls oil
better deposits have 30 gallons/ton rock
most land is federally owned
Best known recovery methods involve strip mining and surface retorting

23. Oil And Natural Gas Oil Shales Environmental problems
retorting expands the shale 20% compounding disposal problems
strip mining
waste is very alkaline and pollutes streams
air pollution from dust and many chemicals
burning shale oil produces 1.5 to 5 times the CO2 of conventional oil
CO2 is released from calcite

24. Oil And Natural Gas Natural Gas (methane CH4) History
Natural gas was once considered a nuisance and was routinely flared before 1940
Now natural gas is either:
reinjected to maintain oil field pressure
shipped to market
preferably by pipeline
LNG tankers are dangerous

25. Oil And Natural Gas
The resource yet to be developed in the U.S. may be 1500 x1012 cubic feet
65 years supply at 1995 consumption rates
This high total may result from discoveries in the Rocky Mtn overthrust belt

26. Top 20 Natural Gas Reserves

27. Top 20 Natural Gas Reserves

28. Top 20 Natural Gas Consumers

29. Top 20 Natural Gas Consumers

30. Coal Coal resources are more easily estimated
U.S. may have billion tons of commercial coal
a 600 year supply
resource is 10 times oil
4000 billion tons may ultimately be available
USSR has 3 to 4 X the U.S. resource

31. source

32. Coal distribution in the U.S.
Map of lower 48 States showing areas of coal-bed gas and locations of plays assessed
(U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1118 )

33. Source

34. Coal Important uses of coal electricity generation
production of methane by gasification
domestic and commercial heat
heat for industrial processes

35. Coal
How coal is produced
Source

36. Coal Adverse environmental impacts Strip mining
occupational hazards - black lung, mine collapse, etc.
stream pollution from mines
SO2 and NOX air pollution - acid rain
particulate air pollution

37. Mountaintop removal mining near the Mud River, southern West Virginia
Resulted in polluted air, streams and well water, in addition to strong earth vibrations due to the detonation of explosives.
Photograph by Melissa Farlow / Source

38. Mountain top mining in Kayford Mountain in Raleigh County, West Virginia
Photograph by Melissa Farlow / Source

39. Cleanup of a mine tailing dam failure near Inez, Kentucky in October 2000
250 million gallons (950 million liters) of slurry entered into the Tug Fork of the Big Sandy River
Photograph by Melissa Farlow / Source

40.
J. Paul Storrs, mining engineer, U.S. Geological Survey, examining the coal in ColoWyo Coal Company's mine near Axial. Moffat County, Colorado. 1960
The underground loading of coal in ColoWyo Coal Company's mine near Axial. Moffat County, Colorado. 1960

41. Countries by carbon dioxide emissions world map
source

42. NUCLEAR POWER

43. Atomic Fusion
Possibility was first recognized by Hans Bethe Nobel Prize)
Concept is to harness the energy of the sun by fusing 1D2 into 2He3 or 2He4
This has already been done in the form of the hydrogen bomb
Image source

44. Atomic Fusion Definitions
Isotope – atom that exhibits variation in its mass number
Mass number – sum of the neutrons plus the protons in an atom
Atomic number – # of protons found in the nucleus
Atomic weight – average of the atomic masses of all the element's isotopes

45. Atomic Fusion Nuclear energy is released by several processes:
Radioactive decay, where a radioactive nucleus decays spontaneously into a lighter nucleus by emitting a particle
Alpha particles are stopped by a sheet of paper whilst beta particles halt to an aluminum plate. Gamma radiation is dampened when it penetrates matter. Gamma rays can be stopped from 4 meters of lead.
source

46. Atomic Fusion Nuclear energy is released by several processes:
Endothermic nuclear reactions where two nuclei merge to produce two different nuclei. The following two processes are particular examples:
Fusion, two atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus;
Fission, the breaking of a heavy nucleus into two nearly equal parts
source

47. Fusion
Fission
source

48. Atomic Fusion The 3 Isotopes of Hydrogen Hydrogen 1H1 Deuterium 1D2
Tritium 1T3

49. The Energy Of Atomic Fission
Fuels for Nuclear Reactors
Natural fuels
U235 is the only natural isotope of any element that is spontaneously fissionable
92U % of all U
92U %
92U %
U235 is the initial fuel for all fission reactors
1 gram of U235 equals 2.7 metric tons coal or 13.7 bbls oil

50. The Energy Of Atomic Fission
Fuels for Nuclear Reactors
Man made fuels
U238 and Th232, fertile materials, can be made to combine with a neutron to make a useful fuel
92U238 + neutron → 94Pu239 fuel
90Th232 + neutron → 92U233 fuel

51. The Energy Of Atomic Fission
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
U235 must be enriched from 0.711% to 3.0%
This is done with UF6 gas
After enrichment the U is made into UO2 ceramic pellets
These pellets become fuel rods which last 3 years
They are then stored in water at the reactor site

52. The Energy Of Atomic Fission
Types of Reactors
The Light Water Reactor LWR
This is a burner type reactor which simply consumes U235 and produces neutrons, heat, and waste
Reactor ultimately produces steam to drive the turbine
A typical LWR has 100 tons of enriched U fuel - 40,000 rods
Control rods are neutron absorbing B or Cd

53. The Energy Of Atomic Fission
Types of Reactors
Breeder Reactors
These reactors convert U238 and Th232 into fuel
France, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany and the USSR are developing breeders
The United States started research in 1948 on the LMFBR
Low U costs will probably delay breeders in the U.S. until after 2000

54. Advantages of Nuclear Power
No greenhouse gas emissions (during normal operation)
Does not pollute the air
Small solid waste generation (during normal operation)
Low fuel costs - because so little fuel is needed
Large fuel reserves - (e.g., in Canada and Australia) again, because so little fuel is needed
source

55. Disadvantages of Nuclear Power
Risk of accidents
Nuclear waste
Plutonium can be used to make nuclear bombs
High initial costs
High energy inputs during construction (equivalent to ~7 years power output)
High maintenance costs
Security concerns
High cost of decommissioning plants
Thermal pollution
Finite fuel source
source

56. Problems Of Uranium Mining
Lung Cancer among the Miners
NRC and the U.S. Public Health Service found a higher incidence of lung cancer among miners

57. Problems Of Uranium Mining
Waste from Uranium Milling
865 gallons of toxic chemical waste form per ton of ore treated
This waste was discharged into rivers or seeped into the Earth in the 1960's

58. Problems Of Uranium Mining
The Problem of Tailings
100 million tons of radioactive sand exists at 30 mills in the western U.S.
5000 homes in Grand Junction, CO were built with this sand
Tailings have washed into Lake Powell and Lake Meade

59. Problems At The Reactor Site
Geological Problems
Extremely extensive geological investigations are made
Reactors still end up too close to fault zones
Diablo Canyon - PG&E
Bodega Bay

60. Problems At The Reactor Site
Human and Mechanical Error
Three Mile Island - March 28, 1979
The feed water pump to the reactor core was accidentally closed
rods immediately went in and the reactor partly stopped
Human error resulted in the emergency cooling system being shut off for 2 hours
Core overheated to 1500ºC
one billion dollars damage

61. Problems At The Reactor Site
Human and Mechanical Error
Chernobyl - April 26, 1986
Human errors resulted in a explosion and radiation release
100,000 people may be contaminated

62. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Fission products
Over 30 elements form
most have half lives of <100 years
emit beta and gamma radiation
Some are water soluble and biologically active

63. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Transuranium products
heavier than U and form by neutron capture
have half lives >1000 years
act as heavy metal poisons
Waste must be stored for 250,000 years

64. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
How Much Spent Nuclear Fuel is there in the U.S.A.
Remember that there is also military and medical waste
By the year 2000 there will be 40,000 metric tons stored at 70 locations
By 2035 the total will be 85,000 metric tons
The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 selected Yucca Mountain, NV as the only depository site in the U.S.

65. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Criteria for a Storage Method
isolation from the biosphere for 250,000 years
sabotage and accident free for 250,000 years
safe from natural disasters for 250,000 years
must not involve large land areas or resources
must be resistant to erosion, Earthquakes, and volcanism
handling and transport must be fail safe
economically and technically possible

66. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Possible Storage Methods
Rocket transport of the waste
dangerous and costly
Continue present tank storage indefinitely
leakage of dangerous waste has already occurred
Placement in deep chambers of granite
waste would boil, dehydrate, melt the surrounding rock and seal itself
leakage along fractures is possible

67. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Possible Storage Methods
Injection in Deep Wells
Waste would be mixed with cement or injected directly under high pressure into impermeable layers
Many dangers
high pressure injection is dangerous
high temperature could drive the waste out into other layers
could lubricate faults

68. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Possible Storage Methods
Deposition in Trenches
technically difficult to assure no leaks

69. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Possible Storage Methods
Deposition under polar ice caps
Waste containers melt to the bottom of the glacier and remain stationary
Violates international treaties

70. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Possible Storage Methods
Salt Mine Waste Storage
salt indicates a dry environment
salt flows and seals fractures
salt dissipates heat

71. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
Possible Storage Methods
Element Transmutation
Eventually gamma ray lasers will convert dangerous elements into safe ones

72. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
What is to be done?
Find a public repository for nuclear waste
Because of public fear this is probably a doomed and costly effort
Reprocess spent fuel to reduce the volume of waste
This raises more fear because Pu may be diverted to nuclear weapons
A permanent repository will still be needed

73. The Disposal Of Nuclear Waste
What is to be done?
Continue on-site, dry-tank storage
This is the only reasonable political solution
This can be done for a 100 years and will allow time for:
improved technology
decline of public fear

74. Energy Crisis

75. Cause of the Energy Crisis
Lack of national energy plan
Years of import restrictions depleted our domestic resource
Federal regulations on the price of oil & natural gas
Laws restricting the burning of coal
Environmental opposition to strip mining, offshore drilling, refinery construction
Growing population & increased demand per capita
Inefficient homes, transportation, and manufacturing
Wars

76. Andrew Carnegie Story From NPR
Andrew Carnegie was approached by a man on the street who claimed to have the key to success written in a small book. For $20,000 Carnegie could have the book.
Image source

77. Andrew Carnegie Story From NPR
Carnegie requested a sample of the suggestions:
Each day make a list of the most important things to be accomplished.
Do them!!
Carnegie bought the book!!

78. Who’s Andrew Carnegie?
Founder of the Carnegie Steel Company (later became U.S. Steel)
Carnegie Institute of Technology (CIT) at Pittsburgh (now part of Carnegie Mellon University)
Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C.
Carnegie Hall in New York City.
Ring any bells?

79. Andrew Carnegie Story From NPR
Such an approach to national problems in 1980 would have:
Developed an alternative energy and conservation plan,
Emphasized improved public schools,
etc.
We didn't do it. Now we pay the price.

80. ~ end ~