1. CHAPTER 4
LEARNING

2. Chapter plan INTRODUCTION CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov’s dogs
Other examples of conditioned responses
Associative analysis
The importance of classical conditioning
INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING
Thorndike’s cats
The Skinner box
The law of effect
Control of performance
The importance of instrumental learning
THE PRINCIPLES OF ASSOCIATION FORMATION
Contiguity and predictiveness
Selective association formation
NON-ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
Responding to a single stimulus
Spatial learning
Discrimination learning
SUMMARY

3. We all know what ‘learning’ means.
As we develop, we learn new motor skills, such as playing the piano or riding a bike.
We acquire new cognitive skills, such as long division or computer programming.
And we might learn a body of information, such as the dates of the kings of England or the words of a song.

4. As we develop, we learn new motor skills, such as riding a bike. (Fig

5. In psychology, the term ‘learning’ covers all four of these points, and more.
A wider, psychological definition might go something like this: ‘Learning is the process whereby an organism interacts with its environment and becomes changed by the experience so that its subsequent behaviour is modified.’

6. Psychologists believe that, by focusing their attention on relatively simple examples of learning that are amenable to experimental and theoretical analysis, they will be able to discover basic principles of learning that can then be used to explain a wide range of complex learning phenomena.
Just as the geneticist has studied the genetics of the fruitfly in the laboratory to determine generally applicable laws of inheritance, so the psychologist has studied the behaviour of the rat in the maze in the hope of discovering equally general laws of learning.

7. Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning: learning procedure in which two stimuli are paired – one (the conditioned stimulus) usually presented shortly before the other (the unconditioned stimulus) to produce a conditioned response to the first stimulus (learning).
Association: a link between two events or entities that permits one to activate the other (such as when a characteristic odour elicits an image of the place where it was once experienced).

8. Pavlov’s dogs
Unconditioned response (UR): evoked by a stimulus before an animal has received any explicit training with that stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus (US): evokes an unconditioned response.
Conditioned response (CR) evoked by a conditioned stimulus as a result of classical conditioning.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) evokes a conditioned response as a result of classical conditioning.

9. Other examples of conditioned responses
Autoshaping: classical conditioning used with pigeons which results in pecking at an illuminated response key that has been regularly presented before the delivery of food, even though the delivery of the food does not depend on the pecking behaviour.
Flavour aversion learning: classical conditioning procedure in which animals are allowed to consume a substance with a novel flavour and are then given some treatment that induces nausea, resulting in the flavour being subsequently rejected.

10. Sensory preconditioning
Sensory preconditioning: pairing of two neutral stimuli prior to one of them being used as the conditioned stimulus in a standard classical conditioning procedure, leading to the other stimulus acquiring the power to evoke the conditioned response.

11. Design and results of the experiment by Brogden (1939) on sensory preconditioning. (Table 4.1)

12. Why and how does the CR occur?
There is a simple rule that describes the relationship between the CR and UR for most cases of conditioning: as a result of classical conditioning, the animal generally comes to behave toward the CS (e.g. the light) as if it were the US (e.g. the food).
Stimulus substitution: when the conditioned stimulus comes to acquire the same response-eliciting properties as the unconditioned stimulus.

13. Illness-induced aversion learning
Experiencing illness after consuming a given flavour will induce an aversion to that flavour, not just in laboratory rats, but in people too.

14. Rats can learn to avoid a food associated with illness. (Fig. 4.2)

15. Instrumental learning
Instrumental learning: the likelihood of a response is changed because the response yields a certain outcome (a reward or punishment) (also called operant conditioning).

16. One of the ‘puzzle’ boxes used by Thorndike (1898) in his studies of instrumental learning in the cat. (Fig. 4.3)

17. Time taken by a cat to escape from the puzzle box over a series of 20 successive trials. (Fig. 4.4)

18. A rat in a Skinner box. The animal pictured has his nose next to a lever; when it depresses the lever, a food pellet can be delivered from the container outside the chamber on the left. In normal use, the apparatus is enclosed in a sound- and light- attenuating outer shell. (Fig. 4.5)

19. Punishment: an aversive event as the consequence of a response reduces the probability of the response.
Avoidance: instrumental training procedure in which performing a given response brings about the omission of an aversive event that is otherwise scheduled to occur.

20. Law of effect: Thorndike’s proposal that reward will strengthen the connection between the response that preceded it and any stimuli present when it is delivered.
More generally, the principle that the consequence (effect) of behaviour will determine how likely it is to recur.

21. Partial reinforcement
Partial reinforcement: the delivery of a reinforcer in operant conditioning is scheduled to occur after only a proportion of the responses rather than after all of them (continuous reinforcement).
Schedules of reinforcement: rules that determines which responses will be followed by a reinforcer in operant conditioning.

22. Punishment
Results of an experiment by Church (1969) on the punishing effects of shock. The contingent group, which received shock when it responded, came to show response suppression. (A ratio score of 0.5 means no suppression; a score of zero means complete suppression.) The noncontingent group received shocks independently of its behaviour and showed less suppression. The control group received no shocks and showed no suppression. (Fig. 4.6)

23. Reinforcer: an event that, when made contingent on a response, increases the probability of that response; also another term for the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning.

24. Results of an experiment by Adams (1982) on the effects of reinforcer devaluation on instrumental responding. Scores are from a 20-minute test session in which rats were allowed to respond by depressing a lever without consequences. In initial training some animals had received 100 reinforced responses, others 500. For half the animals in each condition the reinforcer was then devalued by being associated with illness. (Fig. 4.7)

25. Control of performance
Discriminative stimulus: signals whether or not a given response is likely to produce a particular outcome.

26. The importance of instrumental conditioning
Two-process theory: emphasizes the interaction of instrumental and classical conditioning processes in producing many types of behaviour.
Instrumental learning processes can play a role in establishing and maintaining behaviour that seems anything but voluntary.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder: characterized by intrusive unwelcome thoughts (obsessions) and the need repeatedly to perform certain patterns of behaviour (compulsions), such as hand-washing.

27. Principles of association formation
Principle of contiguity: the proposal that events must be experienced close together in time and space for an association to be formed between them.

28. Blocking – failure to learn
Blocking: training an organism with one stimulus as a signal for an unconditioned stimulus to prevent the organism from learning about a second stimulus when both stimuli are subsequently presented together as signals for the same unconditioned stimulus.

29. Design and results of an experiment by Kamin (1969) on blocking
Design and results of an experiment by Kamin (1969) on blocking. (Table 4.3)

30. Selective association formation
Preparedness: tendency of certain combinations of events to form associations more readily than others.
Principle of similarity: suggestion that association formation occurs particularly readily when the events are similar to one another.

31. Non-associative learning
Habituation: waning of the unconditioned response with repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus.
Dishabituation: restoration of a habituated response by presentation of a strong extraneous stimulus.
Imprinting: the development of filial responses by newly hatched birds to an object (usually the mother) experienced early in life, or, more generally, the early formation of social attachments in animals.

32. Habituation of the startle response of rats to an auditory stimulus
Habituation of the startle response of rats to an auditory stimulus. The response magnitude is expressed with respect to the initial level, which is given a score of 100. For half the animals a light flash was presented before trial 15 resulting in a temporary recovery of the startle response (dishabituation). (Fig. 4.10)

33. Perhaps surprisingly, studies of molluscs have helped researchers find out more about how the brain works. (Fig. 4.11)

34. Perceptual learning: exposure to events, increasing subsequent ability to discriminate between them.

35. Spatial learning
Cognitive map: postulated internalized representation of the layout of the environment in which information about the relative spatial relationships of various features is preserved.

36. Swimming pool apparatus introduced by Morris (1981)
Swimming pool apparatus introduced by Morris (1981). Although it cannot see, smell or hear the target, the rat learns to swim straight to the small, just-submerged, platform from wherever it is put into the pool. (Fig. 4.12)

37. Plan view of the paths taken by rats on test trials in the swimming pool of Figure The top row shows the performance of six rats swimming from a novel starting point to a platform remaining in the same place as was used in training. The second row shows performance for rats required to swim to the platform in a new place in the pool. (Fig. 4.13)

38. Discrimination learning
Performance of monkeys over a series of 344 six-trial discriminations. On each new problem, performance starts at chance, but the rate at which learning occurs is more rapid for problems encountered late in the series than for those encountered earlier. (Fig. 4.14)

39. Summary
Learning is defined as the process whereby an organism interacts with its environment and becomes changed by the experience so that its subsequent behaviour is modified. Note that we infer that learning has occurred through our observations of changes in behaviour.
The basic principles of learning have been established through laboratory studies of animals but are also applicable to humans.
Indeed, these basic principles have been applied to the analysis of human conditions such as obsessive–compulsive disorder.

40. Classical conditioning reflects the formation of stimulus–stimulus associations. Such associations constitute the main way in which an organism represents information about the relations between environmental events; and they can endow previously neutral events with emotional significance.
In instrumental learning (the other major form of conditioning), an association is formed between a response and its consequences.
When the consequences of the response are pleasant, the likelihood of the response will increase; when the consequences are unpleasant, the likelihood will decrease (the law of effect).

41. Behaviour controlled by such associations may be described as voluntary or goal-directed. For example, when in our car we may learn that the response of pressing our foot on the car accelerator when the traffic lights are green results in a positive outcome (increasing the likelihood of this behaviour). By contrast, performing this same response when the traffic lights are amber is likely to result in an unpleasant outcome, thereby decreasing the likelihood of this response in the future.

42. Conditioning procedures are used to investigate the laws of association. They have shown that the co-occurrence of the events to be associated is important (principle of contiguity) but also that associations may fail to form unless one event supplies information about the occurrence of the other (principle of predictiveness).
The associative principle has been thoroughly tested and shown to have wide relevance. It has difficulty, however, in explaining some examples of complex (e.g. the learning of abstract concepts or rules) or very simple (e.g. habituation) forms of learning.