1. 2. Polar Covalent Bonds: Acids and Bases
Based on McMurry’s Organic Chemistry, 7th edition

2. Why this chapter?
Understanding organic chemistry means knowing not just what happens but also why and how it happens.
Description of basic ways chemists account for chemical reactivity.
Establish a foundation for understanding the specific reactions discussed in subsequent chapters.

3. 2.1 Polar Covalent Bonds: Electronegativity (EN)
Covalent bonds can have ionic character; not ionic bond!
These are polar covalent bonds
Bonding electrons attracted more strongly by one atom than by the other
Electron distribution between atoms is not symmetrical. δ means partial charge (see p36, Fig. 2.1)

4. Bond Polarity and Electronegativity
Electronegativity (EN): intrinsic ability of an atom to attract the shared electrons in a covalent bond
Differences in EN produce bond polarity
Arbitrary scale. As shown in Figure 2.2 (next page), electronegativities are based on an arbitrary scale
F is the most electronegative (EN = 4.0), Cs is least (EN = 0.7). 대각선 양쪽 끝에 위치함.
Metals on left side of periodic table attract electrons weakly, lower EN
Halogens and other reactive nonmetals on right side of periodic table attract electrons strongly, higher electronegativities
EN of C = 2.5 , H = 2.1

5. The Periodic Table and Electronegativity

6. Bond Polarity and Inductive Effect
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: atoms with similar EN;
∆(EN) < 0.5
Polar Covalent Bonds: Difference in EN of atoms by 0.5 to 2
Ionic Bonds: Difference in EN > 2
C–H bonds, relatively nonpolar C-O, C-X bonds (more electronegative elements) are polar
Bonding electrons toward electronegative atom
C acquires partial positive charge, +
Electronegative atom acquires partial negative charge, -
Inductive effect: shifting of electrons in a bond in response to EN of nearby atoms; plays a major role in understanding chemical reactivity.

7. Electrostatic Potential Maps
Electrostatic potential maps show calculated charge distributions
Colors indicate electron-rich (red) and electron-poor (blue) regions
Arrows indicate direction of bond polarity

8. 2.2 Polar Covalent Bonds: Dipole Moments
Molecules as a whole are often polar from vector summation of individual bond polarities and lone-pair contributions
Strongly polar substances soluble in polar solvents like water; nonpolar substances are insoluble in water.
Dipole moment () - Net molecular polarity, due to difference in summed charges
 is defined as the magnitude of charge Q at end of molecular dipole times distance r between the charges
 = Q  r, in debyes (D), 1 D =  1030 coulomb meter
For example, the unit charge on an electron is 1.6 x 1019 C. Thus, if one positive charge and one negative charge were separated by 100 pm, the dipole moment would be 1.60  1029 Cm, or 4.80 D.

9. Dipole Moments in Water and Ammonia
Substantial dipole moments in water and ammonia are shown because they contain
strongly EN atoms like O and N
both O and N have lone-pair electrons oriented away from all nuclei

10. Absence of Dipole Moments
In symmetrical molecules, the dipole moments of each bond has one in the opposite direction
The effects of the local dipoles cancel each other

11. 2.3 Formal Charges
Sometimes it is necessary to have structures with formal charges on individual atoms
We compare the bonding of the atom in the molecule to the valence electron structure
If the atom has one more electron in the molecule, it is shown with a “-” charge
If the atom has one less electron, it is shown with a “+” charge
Neutral molecules with both a “+” and a “-” are dipolar

12. Formal Charge for Dimethyl Sulfoxide
• Atomic sulfur has 6 valence electrons.
Dimethyl suloxide sulfur has only 5.
• It has lost an electron and has positive charge.
• Oxygen atom in DMSO has gained electron and has (-) charge.

14. 2.4 Resonance (공명)
Some molecules are have structures that cannot be shown with a single representation
In these cases we draw structures that contribute to the final structure but which differ in the position of the  bond(s) or lone pair(s)
Such a structure is delocalized and is represented by resonance forms; see p43
The resonance forms are connected by a double-headed arrow

15. Resonance Hybrids
A structure with resonance forms does not alternate between the forms; see p 43
For example, benzene (C6H6), all its C-C bonds are equivalent, the bond length is midway between double and single bonds.
(see p 44)

16. 2.5 Rules for Resonance Forms
Individual resonance forms are imaginary, not real - the real structure is a composite, or resonance hybrid, of the different forms.
Resonance forms differ only in the placement of their  or nonbonding electrons
Different resonance forms of a substance don’t have to be equivalent; major contributor vs. minor contributor
Resonance forms must be valid Lewis structures: the octet rule applies
The resonance hybrid is more stable than any individual resonance form.

17. Curved Arrows and Resonance Forms
We can imagine that electrons move in pairs to convert from one resonance form to another
A curved arrow shows that a pair of electrons moves from the atom or bond at the tail of the arrow to the atom or bond at the head of the arrow

18. Resonance Forms
The resonance hybrid has properties associated with both types of contributors
The “enolate” derived from acetone is a good illustration, with delocalization between carbon and oxygen
The types may contribute unequally (see p 45, Rule 3)
When two resonance forms are nonequivalent, the actual structure of the resonance hybrid is closer to the more stable form.

19. 2.6 Drawing Resonance Forms
Any three-atom grouping with a p orbital on each atom has two resonance forms

20. 2,4-Pentanedione The anion derived from 2,4-pentanedione
Lone pair of electrons and a formal negative charge on the central carbon atom, next to a C=O bond on the left and on the right
Three resonance structures result

21. 2.7 Acids and Bases: The Brønsted–Lowry Definition
The terms “acid” and “base” can have different meanings in different contexts
For that reason, we specify the usage with more complete terminology
The idea that acids are solutions containing a lot of “H+” and bases are solutions containing a lot of “OH-” is not very useful in organic chemistry
Instead, Brønsted–Lowry theory defines acids and bases by their role in reactions that transfer protons (H+) between donors and acceptors

22. Brønsted Acids and Bases
“Brønsted-Lowry” is usually shortened to “Brønsted”
A Brønsted acid is a substance that donates a hydrogen ion (H+)
A Brønsted base is a substance that accepts the H+
“proton” is a synonym for H+ - loss of an electron from H leaving the bare nucleus—a proton

23. The Reaction of Acid with Base
HCl (Acid) + H2O (Base)  H3O+ (Conj. Acid)+ -Cl (Conj. Base) (see p 49)
Hydronium ion, product when base H2O gains a proton
HCl donates a proton to water molecule, yielding hydronium ion (H3O+) [conjugate acid of the base] and Cl [conjugate base]
The reverse is also a Brønsted acid–base reaction of the conjugate acid and conjugate base

24. 2.8 Acid and Base Strength
The equilibrium constant (Keq) for the reaction of an acid (HA) with water to form hydronium ion and the conjugate base (A-) is a measure related to the strength of the acid
Stronger acids have larger Keq
Note that brackets [ ] indicate concentration (M; moles per liter).

25. Ka ; the Acidity Constant; = Keq [H2O] = Keq x 55.6
The concentration of water as a solvent does not change significantly when it is protonated
The molecular weight of H2O is 18 and one liter weighs 1000 grams, so the concentration is ~ 55.4 M at 25°
The acidity constant, Ka for HA : Keq times 55.6 M (leaving [water] out of the expression)
Ka ranges from 1015 for the strongest acids to very small values (10-60) for the weakest

27. pKa – the Acid Strength Scale
pKa = -log Ka
The free energy in an equilibrium is related to –log of Keq (DG = -RT log Keq)
A smaller value of pKa indicates a stronger acid and is proportional to the energy difference between products and reactants
The pKa of water is
For the acid dissociation of water;

28. 2.9 Predicting Acid–Base Reactions from pKa Values
Strong Acid + Strong base 
Weak Acid + Weak Base
(see p 53; Ex. 2.4)
The stronger base holds the proton more tightly

29. 2.10 Organic Acids and Organic Bases
characterized by the presence of positively polarized hydrogen atom

30. Organic Acids
Those that lose a proton from O–H, such as methanol and acetic acid
Those that lose a proton from C–H, usually from a carbon atom next to a C=O double bond (O=C–C–H)

31. Organic Bases
Have an atom with a lone pair of electrons that can bond to H+
Nitrogen-containing compounds derived from ammonia are the most common organic bases
Oxygen-containing compounds can react as bases when with a strong acid or as acids with strong bases

32. 2.11 Acids and Bases: The Lewis Definition
Lewis acids are electron pair acceptors
and Lewis bases are electron pair donors
The donated electron pair is shared between the acid and the base in a covalent bond (see the bottom figure)
Brønsted acids are not Lewis acids because they cannot accept an electron pair directly (only a proton would be a Lewis acid)
The Lewis definition leads to a general description of many reaction patterns but there is no scale of strengths as in the Brønsted definition of pKa

33. Lewis Acids and the Curved Arrow Formalism
The Lewis definition of acidity includes metal cations, such as Mg2+
They accept a pair of electrons when they form a bond to a base
Group 3A elements (B, Al, Ga, etc), such as BF3 and AlCl3, are Lewis acids because they have unfilled valence orbitals and can accept electron pairs from Lewis bases
Transition-metal compounds, such as TiCl4, FeCl3, ZnCl2, and SnCl4, are Lewis acids
The combination of a Lewis acid and a Lewis base can shown with a curved arrow from base to acid

34. Illustration of Curved Arrows in Following Lewis Acid-Base Reactions

35. Lewis Bases
Lewis bases can accept protons as well as Lewis acids, therefore the definition encompasses that for Brønsted bases
Most oxygen- and nitrogen-containing organic compounds are Lewis bases because they have lone pairs of electrons
Some compounds can act as both acids and bases, depending on the reaction

36. 2.12 Molecular Models Organic chemistry is 3-D space
Molecular shape is critical in determining the chemistry a compound undergoes in the lab, and in living organisms

37. 2.13 Noncovalent Interactions
Also called as intermolecular forces or van der Waals forces
Several types:
Dipole-dipole forces
Dispersion forces
Hydrogen bonds

38. Dipole-Dipole Interaction
• Occur between polar molecules as a result of electrostatic interactions among dipoles
• Forces can be either attractive or repulsive depending on the orientation of the molecules

39. Dispersion Forces
• Occur between all neighboring molecules and arise because the electron distribution within molecules that are constantly changing

40. Hydrogen Bond Forces • is a strong dipole-dipole interaction
• Most important noncovalent interaction in biological molecules
• Forces are result of attractive interaction between a hydrogen bonded to an electronegative O or N atom and an unshared electron pair on another O or N atom (see p62)
• hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic (see p 63)

42. Summary
Organic molecules often have polar covalent bonds as a result of unsymmetrical electron sharing caused by differences in the electronegativity of atoms
The polarity of a molecule is measured by its dipole moment, .
(+) and () indicate formal charges on atoms in molecules to keep track of valence electrons around an atom
Some substances must be shown as a resonance hybrid of two or more resonance forms that differ by the location of electrons.
A Brønsted(–Lowry) acid donates a proton
A Brønsted(–Lowry) base accepts a proton
The strength Brønsted acid is related to the -1 times the logarithm of the acidity constant, pKa. Weaker acids have higher pKa’s

43. Summary (cont’d)
A Lewis acid has an empty orbital that can accept an electron pair
A Lewis base can donate an unshared electron pair
In condensed structures C-C and C-H are implied
Skeletal structures show bonds and not C or H (C is shown as a junction of two lines) – other atoms are shown
Molecular models are useful for representing structures for study
Noncovalent interactions have several types: dipole-dipole, dispersion, and hydrogen bond forces