1. Ethical Egoism
Candidates should be able to explain with clarity what Ethical Egoism is
Stirner’s understanding of Ethical Egoism, with particular emphasis on his assertion that self-interest in the root cause of all human actions,
egoism is not fundamentally associated with material gain and that egoism is not anti-social (Union of Egoists).
clear knowledge and understanding of each of the criticisms listed and why each is specifically damaging to Ethical Egoism.
Ethical Egoism -:Normative agent focused ethic based on self-interest as opposed to altruism; ethical theory that matches the moral agents psychological state (psychological egoism); concentration on long term self-interests rather than short term interests; Max Stirner, self-interest as the root cause of every human action even if it appears altruistic; rejection of egoism for material gain; union of egoists.
Challenges:
destruction of a community ethos; social injustices could occur as individuals put their own interests first; a form of bigotry (why is one moral agent more important than any other?).
The extent to which ethical egoism inevitably leads to moral evil.
The extent to which all moral actions are motivated by self-interest.
Whether Ethical Egoism is superior to the other theories.

2. Is it good to be selfish?

3. In Plato’s Republic, Glaucon challenges Socrates: “if we could do whatever we wanted without fear of punishment, the just man would do the same as the unjust man”. It is easier, and more rewarding, to be unjust. It is also more important to appear just, than to actually be just.
Take any virtue.
Is is possible to re-interpret it in terms of self-interest?
In that case, is there no difference between the just man and the unjust man?

4. Psychological Egoism:
A descriptive theory of what motivates human behaviour
Explains that every human action is motivated by self-interest
Psychological Egoism
PE states that as a matter of fact, people act for selfish reasons.
They only pretend to have unselfish reasons. Altruism is an illusion
They would probably feel embarrassed to admit this, and would be likely to “justify” their selfish actions in some way, but underlying their actions, is always a selfish motivation.
But maybe it is not as bad as it sounds. You don’t have to be ruthless, uncaring, using others for your own ends.
You can be selfish and do actions which are just & unselfish
You don’t have to be concerned with short-term pleasure or material gain (you might prefer the long-term happiness of loving another, or being thought of by others as, or believe you are meriting eternal life)
Your selfishness may be of benefit to others. Eg Free Market Economy – Adam Smith.

5. Arguments against Psychological Egoism
For each of these challenges, how does PE emerge?
Is PE correct?
1. Do we really always act for our own self-interest?
Don’t we sometimes do things, which we know are bad for us?
Do we really never do things because we simply feel we “ought” to, or do things we don’t want to, for other reasons?
So there is a difficulty with PE:
We don’t always do what we want to do, whether or not it makes us feel good.
We have duties, we act altruistically. The PE has to deny such acts exist.
We don’t always do what is good for our own interest.
It is unfalsifiable, so meaningless/ empty.
2. Psych Egoists deny the possibility of altruistic acts. If we do apparently altruistic acts, there is a hidden selfish motivation, or it makes us feel good.
Does feeling satisfaction about something, make it selfish?
How could you prove that there is always a selfish motivation? Isn’t this an assumption, and untestable?

6. Arguments against Psychological Egoism
PE deny possibility of altruistic acts. We only do altruistic acts because it makes us feel good.
But feeling satisfaction does not make doing something selfish
you would not feel satisfaction from helping others, if you were selfish
We may be altruistic simply because we feel we ought to. Duty.
A mother caring for child/ saving someone from drowning /giving money to famine victims
eat meat if someone cooked it for you without knowing you are vegetarian
How could you prove that someone only acts on self-interest?
Unfalsifiable/irrefutable.
You could always come up with a reason why it was selfish. That doesn’t mean it really was. An assumption, even if plausible.
We don’t always act for our best self-interest
We do things not in our self-interest, eg taking drugs

7. Ethical Egoism
In contrast to Psych Egoism (which describe that we are selfish), Ethical Egoism says that we ought to act selfishly, and it is rational to do so.
Normative, agent-focused ethical theory
Explains why following duties, being altruistic does not make sense, but being selfish does
Doesn’t deny that altruism or duties exist, but argues that it is wrong to act because of them.
How do we define a “selfish” person?
To think only about yourself, inconsiderate, unfeeling, ruthless, using others as a means to your own ends – is morally flawed. They fail to restrain themselves where situation of conflict with others.
How should we define “selfish” for an ethical theory?
Do only what protects and promotes own welfare, well-being, happiness, best interest.
Being altruistic, dutiful does not make sense for the egoist.
Does this work?

8. DISCUSSION: will EE work?
For each of the following scenarios do the following:
Describe what would happen if everyone acted this way.
Describe whether the consequences in (1) would damage what was in your interest.
What are the chances of everyone behaving this way?
Given your answers to the above, would you say that it is still in your self-interest to behave in this way?

9. Defending EE A. It makes sense for people to be egotistic
2. For the viewpoints in colour, match the objection.
Where does this leave EE?
1. Given your discussion answers, do these defences manage to justify being selfish?
Defending EE
A. It makes sense for people to be egotistic
(it is rational to be selfish):
As individual rule, EE says
You can only know your own desires and wants accurately and reliably
You can only effectively achieve your own wants, not someone else’s – acting on someone else’s behalf may do more harm than good
As universal rule, EE says
it is in everybody’s interests, when you effectively pursue and achieve your own goals and desires
Free market economics (Adam Smith)
Supermarkets customer service
JS Mill: if promote own interests, increase interests of all
B. It does not make sense to be altruistic
You are being intrusive into other people’s lives
Your altruism robs others of their dignity, & self-reliance
You are putting yourself down
You are valuing yourself less than the other person, whereas your life is of ultimate value – you only have one!
(Ayn Rand)
If you act altruistically, you are being controlled by duties and ideals from society/ religion etc, not your own wants and desires. You are unfree.
(Max Stirner)

10. As universal rule, EE says
it is in everybody’s interests, when you effectively pursue and achieve your own goals and desires
...obviously false: only works if interests do not conflict. Then need to work out how to balance out the unavoidable harm/ suffering. Common Good not necessarily promoted.
EE just encourages each individual to fight hardest for themselves – more conflict.
Ayn Rand
An altruist is putting themselves down
They value themselves less than the other person, whereas their life is of ultimate value – you only have one!
…what makes me more special or deserving in having my wants satisfied, just because they are my own? Racism, sexism. Leads to bigotry.
If others are like me, then their interests are comparable to my own and should be taken as seriously.
EE may be right as an individual rule - that you can only really know and help yourself effectively. It may also be right in saying that charity to others is demeaning for them.
EE may be wrong when it says it works in everybody’s interests, or that one individual matters more than others, or that we don’t need laws/ the state.
Now we will consider Stirner in more detail.
Max Stirner
You are being controlled by socially-imposed duties and ideals, not your own wants and desires. You are unfree.
If we reject social restraints, this leads to anarchy and disappearance of the state
How can we avoid people doing evil acts because they want to, if there are no rules or laws?

11. Stirner Quotes – what do you think of him?
“I am the owner of my might, and I am so when I know myself as unique…every higher essence above me, be it God, be it man, weakens my sense of uniqueness””
“The habit of the religious way of thinking has biased our mind so grievously that we are terrified at ourselves in our nakedness and naturalness”.
“I decide whether it is the right thing in me; there is no right outside me.”
“I myself am my concern and I am neither good nor bad. Neither has meaning for me.”
“I, who am competent for much, …shall I not help myself as well as I can, but only wait and see what is left in me in an equal division?”
“Egoism does not think of sacrificing anything, giving away anything that it wants; it simply decides, what I want I must have and will procure.”
“Why will you not take courage now to really make yourself the central point and the main thing altogether?”
“Become, each of you, an almighty ego…just recognise what you really are!”

12. Max Stirner What is “true egoism”?
Make notes from the book to complete two sections of your table.
Teach someone else your findings & try to answer their questions!
**How is Stirner’s philosophy not just advocating a conventional self-interest?
Max Stirner
What is “true egoism”?
What is realising your “ownness” (eigenheit)?
What is the “true self” (einzige) and what is the delusion it must reject?
What is realising your “uniqueness” (einzig) ?
What does Stirner say when asked if we should give to charity? Why?
What is the “union of egoists”?

13. Max Stirner What is “true egoism”?
Review your notes about Stirner.
Teach someone else about 2 of the headings
**How is Stirner’s philosophy not just advocating a conventional self-interest?
Max Stirner
What is “true egoism”?
What is realising your “ownness” (eigenheit)?
What is the “true self” (einzige) and what is the delusion it must reject?
What is realising your “uniqueness” (einzig) ?
What does Stirner say when asked if we should give to charity? Why?
What is the “union of egoists”?

14. Stirner vs. psychological egoism
A psychological egoist does what is self-interested, but may still be “mastered” by non-personal influences in society/ religion/ philosophy.
They may also be mastered by their passions eg sensuality, ambition, greed.
They are not truly ‘self’, and so not truly egoistic.
Stirner therefore differs from psych.egoists –they may act for material gain or sensuality. Because his ethical egoism eliminates selfish passions, it is much less anti-social.
I will to do that which serves my own unique nature, according to my own uniqueness (einzig). I do as I will/ please.
I am not free if:
I do what I do not want
I act out of duty
I act out of passion / sensual desire
I act out of greed for material possession
I act out of guilt or conscience
I act because of demands the State/ Law– only if I wish it

15. Challenges to Stirner & EE
Weaknesses
No absolutes: no “right” or “wrong” as such. All depends on you. So allows wrongdoing & evil at the expense of others.
Nobody is truly “self”. We are all influenced and educated. Also, we are all too weak to break out of such frameworks, or to know how to.
Encourages bigotry & social conflict: the idea that one person’s self-interest is the key value – does not recognise equal rights of others, and so the need to limit one’s own freedom. Leads to more conflict, not social harmony.
How to balance the will of an egoist and the will of a union of egoists, if only individual desires matter? Cannot run society on EE lines.
Strengths
Stirner’s EE disapproves of being driven by selfish desires – and so more likely to respect others
Care and concern for others is based on real self-satisfaction at treating others in this way – a natural attitude to have, for my own pleasure
Focus on self-interest is only realistic basis for action: I can only know and pursue my own desires effectively, not those of another
Union of egoists recognises that greater self-interest can result from co-operation, so is community- building. This may prevent moral evil of an individual egoist.

16. Summary Does Stirner’s EE work better than psychological egoism?
Does EE work for society?
Does EE work for the individual, to make them happy?