1. Functional Neuroanatomy and the Evolution of the Nervous System
Chapter Two
Functional Neuroanatomy and the Evolution of the Nervous System

2. Anatomical Directions
Rostral or anterior
Head end of four legged animal
Caudal or posterior
Tail end of four legged animal
Inferior or ventral
Towards the belly
Superior or dorsal
Towards the back
Figure 2.1 Anatomical Directions. Anatomists use directional terms to name and locate brain structures. Because standing upright puts an 80-degree angle in the human neuraxis, the dorsal surface of the human brain also forms an 80-degree angle with the dorsal spinal cord. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

3. Anatomical Directions (cont’d.)
Figure 2.1 Anatomical Directions. Anatomists use directional terms to name and locate brain structures. Because standing upright puts an 80-degree angle in the human neuraxis, the dorsal surface of the human brain also forms an 80-degree angle with the dorsal spinal cord. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

4. Planes of Section Sagittal Coronal Horizontal Parallel to midline
Divides nervous system front to back
Horizontal
(axial, transverse)
Divides brain from top to bottom
Figure 2.2 Planes of Section. Anatomists use the horizontal, coronal, and sagittal sections to view three-dimensional structures as two-dimensional images. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

5. Planes of Section (cont’d.)
Figure 2.2 Planes of Section. Anatomists use the horizontal, coronal, and sagittal sections to view three-dimensional structures as two-dimensional images. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

6. Protecting and Supplying the Nervous System
Meninges
Three layers of meninges provide protection
Cerebrospinal fluid
Secreted in hollow spaces in the brain known as ventricles
Circulates through ventricles, subarachnoid space, and central canal of the spinal cord
Blood supply
Brain receives nutrients through the carotid arteries and vertebral arteries

7. The Skull and Three Layers of Membrane Protect the Brain
Figure 2.3 (top/left) The Skull and Three Layers of Membrane Protect the Brain. In addition to the protection provided by the skull bones, the brain and spinal cord are covered with three layers of membranes known as meninges. Going from the skull to the brain, we find the dura mater, the arachnoid layer, and the pia mater. Between the arachnoid and pia mater layers is the subarachnoid space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), only the dura mater and pia mater layers cover the nerves. There is no CSF in the PNS. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)
Figure 2.4 (bottom/right) Meningitis Results from Infection of the Meninges. Viruses and bacteria can invade the layers of the meninges, causing meningitis. Meningitis causes headache and stiffness of the neck, which can be followed by incoherence, drowsiness, coma, and death. This photo shows a fatal case of meningitis with large areas of pus within the meninges. (Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.com)

8. Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation
Figure 2.5 Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulates Through the Ventricles, Spinal Cord, and Subarachnoid Space. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced by the choroid plexus that lines the walls of the ventricles. From the lateral ventricles, the CSF flows through the third and fourth ventricle and into the central canal of the spinal cord. At the base of the cerebellum, CSF exits into the subarachnoid space and is reabsorbed by veins near the top of the head. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

9. Hydrocephalus
Figure 2.6 (left) Hydrocephalus Results from Blockage in the Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid. This photograph shows a baby born with the condition of hydrocephalus, which results when the normal circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is blocked. Note the large size of the baby’s head, which has expanded to accommodate all of the CSF. Untreated, hydrocephalus causes intellectual disability, but, today, shunts installed to drain off the excess fluid can prevent any further damage to the child’s brain. (Bart’s Medical Library/Phototake)
Figure 2.7 (right) Shunt for Hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus in newborns used to be a major cause of intellectual disability. Contemporary treatment consisting of shunts inserted into the ventricle that drain excess cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to the abdomen or heart has reduced the damage done to the brains of individuals with this condition.

10. The Brain Has a Generous Supply of Blood
Figure 2.8 The Brain Has a Generous Supply of Blood. Blood reaches the brain either through the carotid arteries on either side of the neck or through the vertebral arteries entering through the base of the skull. Once in the brain, these arteries branch into the anterior cerebral artery, and middle cerebral artery, and the posterior cerebral artery. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

11. The Organization of the Nervous System
The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system
All nerves that leave from the brain and spinal cord and extend to and from all parts of the body
Figure 2.9 The Organization of the Nervous System. The nervous system has two major components, the central nervous sytem (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which contains all the nerves that exit the brain and spinal cord. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

12. The Organization of the Nervous System
Figure 2.9 The Organization of the Nervous System. The nervous system has two major components, the central nervous sytem (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which contains all the nerves that exit the brain and spinal cord. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

13. The Central Nervous System – The Spinal Cord
Anatomy
Extends from the medulla to the first lumbar vertebra
31 spinal nerves (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal)
White matter (nerve fibers); gray matter (cell bodies)
Reflexes
Patellar reflex
Withdrawal reflex
Instructors may want to discuss the reticular formation at this time.

14. The Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Figure 2.10 The Anatomy of the Spinal Cord. The spinal cord is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal segments. The spinal nerves exit either side of the cord between the surrounding bony vertebrae. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

15. Embryological Divisions of the Brain
Table 2.1 | Embryological Divisions of the Brain

16. Structures of the Brainstem
Figure 2.11 Structures of the Brainstem. (a) This sagittal section displays many of the important structures found in the brainstem. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

17. Structures of the Brainstem (cont’d.)
Figure 2.11 Structures of the Brainstem. (b) With the cerebral hemispheres removed, we can see spatial relationships between the major structures of the brainstem. The key-to-slice allows us to view a horizontal section of the medulla and several of the important structures found at this level of the brain. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

18. The Central Nervous System: The Hindbrain
Medulla (myelencephalon)
Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
Reticular formation
Consciousness, arousal, movement, and pain
Metencephalon
Pons: balance, motion sickness
Cerebellum
Voluntary movements, muscle tone, balance, speech, motion sickness, executive functions, and emotional processing

19. The Internal Structure of the Midbrain
Periaqueductal gray
Natural pain management
Red nucleus
Motor output pathway
Substantia nigra
Parkinson’s disease
Superior and inferior colliculi
Visual and auditory stimuli
Figure 2.12 The Internal Structure of the Midbrain. Important structures in the midbrain include the superior and inferior colliculi, the cerebral aqueduct, the periaqueductal gray, the substantia nigra, and the red nucleus. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

20. The Internal Structure of the Midbrain
Figure 2.12 The Internal Structure of the Midbrain. Important structures in the midbrain include the superior and inferior colliculi, the cerebral aqueduct, the periaqueductal gray, the substantia nigra, and the red nucleus. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

21. Important Structures in the Brainstem
Table 2.2 Important Structures in the Brainstem

22. The Central Nervous System – The Forebrain
The forebrain is composed of the diencephalon and the telencephalon
Diencephalon
Thalamus
Receives sensory input
Hypothalamus
Regulation of the endocrine system

23. The Thalamus and Hypothalamus of the Diencephalon
Figure 2.13 The Thalamus and Hypothalamus of the Diencephalon. The thalamus lies close to the center of the brain, and the hypothalamus is located rostrally and ventrally relative to the thalamus. Directly below the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland, which is an important part of the endocrine system. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

24. The Central Nervous System – The Forebrain (cont’d.)
Telencephalon
Basal ganglia
Motor control
Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease; ADHD
Limbic sstem
Learning, motivated behavior, and emotion
Cerebral cortex
Four lobes
Sensory cortex, motor cortex, and association cortex

25. The Basal Ganglia and the Limbic System
Figure 2.14 (left) The Basal Ganglia. The basal ganglia include the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and nucleus accumbens. (The subthalamic nucleus and nucleus accumbens cannot be seen from this point of view). The substantia nigra of the midbrain is usually considered to be a part of this system. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)
Figure 2.15 (right) The Limbic System Participates in Learning and Function. A number of closely connected forebrain structures are included in the limbic system, which participates in many emotional, learning, and motivated behaviors. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

26. Structures of the Limbic System
Table 2.3 Structures of the Limbic System

27. The Hippocampus
Figure 2.16 (left) The Hippocampus. The hippocampus curves away from the midline out towards the rostral temporal lobe. This structure plays important roles in learning, memory, and stress.
Figure 2.17 (right) Amygdala Abnormalities Can Lead to Irrational Violence. In very rare cases, abnormalities of the amygdala are associated with uncharacteristic, totally irrational violence. Charles Whitman, who led a previously unremarkable life, killed several family members and then climbed a clock tower at the University of Texas at Austin, in He methodically opened fire on people below, killing 15 and injuring 31. Whitman, who was killed by police, was later found to have a tumor pressing on his amygdala. (Bettmann/Corbis)

28. Comparative Convolutions of the Cortex
Figure 2.18 Comparative Convolutions of the Cortex. The relative degree of cortical convolution is positively correlated with the cognitive abilities of a species.

29. The Layers of the Cerebral Cortex
Figure 2.19 The Layers of the Cerebral Cortex. The cerebral cortex covers the outer surface of the brain. Six distinct layers are apparent in most areas of the cortex. Three different views of these layers are shown here. The Golgi stain highlights entire neurons, and the Nissl stain highlights cell bodies. Note the large pyramid cells shown by the Nissl stain in layer V. The Weigert stain highlights pathways formed by myelinated axons through the cortex.

30. The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
Figure 2.21 The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex. The cortex is traditionally divided into the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)

31. The Corpus Callosum and the Anterior Commissure
Figure 2.22 The Corpus Callosum and the Anterior Commissure. Two fiber bundles, the very large corpus collosum and the much smaller anterior commissure, connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres. (© 2016 Cengage Learning®)