1. Enculturation/ Pembudayaan

2. Cultural learning
Universally, human beings live in a dynamic system of life that urges people to change their lifestyle to become competent in life.
Competencies are however different by culture and environment.
e.g. in singapore, children are exposed earlier age in getting the best exposure of academic life . In African cou ntries children are probably taught on crafts and weaving early in life.

3. Cultural learning
Such competencies that are learned through a prolonged process turn us to be so-well practiced at them that we engage in these behaviours automatically and unconsciously.
These competencies are then associated as “culture”. This culture is being strengthened by a process called “socialisation” (that made the “culture” learned and internalised.

4. Enculturation
Enculturation is products of socialisation process – i.e. subjective underlying psychological aspects that are internalised through development
Socialisation agents help socialisation to occur, i.e. people, institutions, organisations

5. Dimension of enculturatiom
Enculturation dimension is explained by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory of human development through 5 interactive systems.
In this theory, every individual is influenced by other people, and also are able to influence and interact with others

6. Culture, Parenting, and Families
Family provides the most important microsystem to a child’s development
Whiting & Whiting Six cultures study (Whiting & Whiting , 1975)
Anthropologist studied child-rearing and behaviour in 6 countries Mexico, India, Kenya, USA, Okinawa, Japan, Philippines.
Results – Natural environment shaped how household were structured, e.g. children grew up in a society of hunter whom they socialise with, what behaviours and traits etc. than children raised in an urban context.

7. Culture, Parenting, and Families
Women’s work roles contributed to children’s social behaviours. E.g. sub- Saharan Africa  women as major food provides.
“Sharing values”  high scores in responsibilities and low in dependence (seeking comfort & support, seek info & praise & attention)
In-high caste family in India, children scored higher on dependence.

8. Diversity in Parenting as Function of Economics
Economic status of a family plays a substantial rate in the choice of parenting styles.
In high rate of infant mortality, meeting basic needs are probably more important than other developmental demands (positive parenting behaviour in Sudan)
In other culture mothers showed little response and affection to child (negative parenting behaviour in Northeastern Brazil

9. Diversity in Parenting as Function of Economics
LeVine (1977, 1997)  caregiving environment reflects a set of goals ordered in their importance :
(1) physical health & survival,
(2) self-sufficiency,
(3) behaviours promoting cultural values

10. Parenting goals and Beliefs
Exist after 1st needs are met
Culture differs in parenting goals and belief,
e.g. Germany – parenting goal = to raise children who are autonomous; child has unique thoughts, wishes, desires, and needs.
India – autonomous, but closely interdependent with family

11. Parenting goals and Beliefs
Parental ethnotheories = parental cultural belief systems (Harkness & Super, 2006)
- Americans spending special time with children – focussing on activities (goal- oriented)
-Dutch  spending family time – e.g. sit- down dinner every night.

12. Global parenting styles
Baumrind (1971) - 3 types of parenting:
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Uninvolved (additional)
Authoritative  the best approach in bringing up (rearing) children
In Asian and Middle Eastern cultures, authoritarian parenting is prob most ideal.

13. Roles of families
Functions of siblings
Extended family

14. Other roles
Peers
Education system