1. Stressors Stressful events
Relationships (33% of stress of college students)
Interpersonal conflicts (80% of stress of married couples)
Anything you perceive you have no control over
What researchers originally focused on, but problem in that stressors aren’t the same for everyone.

2. Definition of stress
The state of challenge or threat that disrupts the normal rhythm and balance of one’s life
A negative emotional experience accompanied by physiological, biochemical, cognitive, and behavioral changes that are directed to either changing the stressor or dealing with it.

3. Lazarus & Folkman (1984)
Stress is determined by a person-environment fit.
How adequate are your resources to deal with the situation?
Not adequate—lots of stress
Sort of adequate—moderate stress
Adequate—low or no stress

4. 3 components of stress (Lazarus & Folkman)
Appraising the event
Assessing potential responses
Responding to the stressor

5. Fight or flight (Cannon, 1932)
Threat—sympathetic nervous system arousal—fight (attack) or flight (retreat)
Adaptive on one hand because it enables one to respond quickly to the threat. Maladaptive on the other hand because it disrupts emotional & physiological functioning. Can cause medical problems.

6. Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Studied rats & found that all stressors, regardless of type, produced the same pattern of physiological responding:
Enlarged adrenal cortex
Shrinking of thymus and lymph glands
Ulceration of stomach and duodenum

7. Response to stress--Selye
Organism mobilizes self to action when confronted with stressor.
GAS response is nonspecific—doesn’t matter what the stressor is; the organism will respond in the same manner physiologically.
Repeated stress causes wear and tear on system; even positive stress can cause this

8. 3 phases of GAS Alarm—getting mobilized to meet threat
Resistance—trying to cope with threat
Exhaustion—occurs if you fail to meet threat and deplete resources.

9. Tend-and-befriend (Taylor et al., 2000)
We don’t face stress in isolation; we affiliate under stress
Especially prominent in females, who are characteristically caregivers.
Hormone oxytocin may be involved.
May have evolutionary significance—help in self-preservation and care of offspring

10. Lazarus: Psychological Appraisal and Experience of Stress
Primary appraisal—when first confronted with stressors—determine meaning of event (could be positive, negative, or neutral)
Harm—assessment of damage already done
Threat—assessment of possible future damage
Challenge—potential to overcome and even profit from the event.

11. Spiesman, Lazarus, Mordkoff, & Davidson (1964)
Students randomly assigned to 4 conditions to view gruesome film about genital surgery in tribal initiation:
1: intellectual description of the rites
2: deemphasized pain of surgery; emphasized excitement of initiation into tribe
3: emphasized pain and trauma
4: no description given; film had no soundtrack
1 & 2 showed less stress than groups 3 & 4. Stress depends on appraisal of the event, not just the event itself.

12. Secondary appraisal (Lazarus)
Initiated at the same time as primary appraisal
Assessment of coping abilities and resources
Stress experience is a a balance between primary and secondary appraisal
Harm & threat high; coping ability low = lots of stress
Coping ability high (regardless of threat) = less stress

13. Potential responses to stress
Cognitive – specific beliefs about harm or threat posed by threat; involuntary stress responses and performance disruptions; coping activities initiated
Emotional—fear, anxiety, excitement, denial, etc.
Behavioral—limitless; fight/flight, relaxation, etc.

14. Physiological responses to stress
Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions) are responsible for stress response
ANS triggers physiological reactions by the endocrine system, which releases hormones.

15. Definition of Coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)
A person’s efforts to manage stress, solve a problem, find a new way to look at the problem, or distract one’s self from it
Not a one-time action; it’s an ongoing set of responses
Two types of coping: problem-focused and emotion-focused

16. Problem-focused coping
Trying to confront and change the stressor
Can include seeking active help from others, planning and taking direct action
Better for your health than emotion-focused coping

17. Emotion-focused coping
Trying to cope with the emotional effects of a stressful situation
Used when problem has no real solution and just has to be accepted
Usually associated with negative adjustment
Can include trying not to think about it, seeking social support

18. Comparison between the two types of coping
Problem-focused coping emerges during childhood
Emotion-focused coping emerges during later childhood or adolescence
Both types of coping are used when dealing with stressors
Work-related stressors—usually use problem-focused; health-related stressors—dealt with primarily by emotion-focused.
Genetics may play a part in which type you use.

19. Other ways to cope
Relaxation (includes biofeedback, meditation, hypnosis, yoga)
Humor (can improve immune functioning or distract you from problems)
Exercise
Religion
Psychological control (perceived control over environment)

20. Religion and Health
As a coping mechanism, it’s used especially by women, African-Americans, older people, and those with lower incomes
Religious people have better physical and psychological health, and lower rates of mortality.
Study showed that infertile Korean women who were prayed for without their knowledge had 50% pregnancy rate, compared to 26% in the control group.

21. How psychologists explain religion-health link
Religious people have more extensive social networks.
Many religions directly encourage healthy behavior (no drugs, alcohol, risky sex, etc.)
Religion encourages people to rely on adaptive coping mechanisms & acceptance.
Religion provides some type of meaning for tragedies. Religious people are more likely to focus on the positive and be optimistic.
Prayer  relaxation  lowers physiological response to stress

22. Social Support
Defined as information from others that one is loved, cared for, esteemed.
Even pets can provide social support.
First identified in Alameda County study
Four types of social support (Alameda Co. study)
Marriage
Extended family and friends
Church/temple membership
Other group affiliations

23. Types of Social Support
Other people can provide us with information needed to cope with stressor
Can provide tangible support such as money or physical help
Can provide emotional support

24. Specific benefits of social support
Reduces depression and anxiety
Protects against death (social isolation is a major risk factor for death in humans and animals)
Leads to fewer complications during pregnancy, lower rates of heart attacks and better adjustment to heart disease & cancer
Helps people recover from illness/surgery faster
More compliance to medical regimen, more use of health services

25. Which type of support from whom?
Family relationships—strongest social support for psychological functioning
Emotional support—better from intimate others
Informational support/advice—better from experts
If you expect one type of support and get another, then you’re upset.

26. Support early in life
Getting social support from parents early in life & having a stable/supportive environment during childhood has long-term effects on coping and health
Divorce of one’s parents in childhood predicts premature death in midlife

27. Social support vs. social companionship (Karen Rook)
Social support—having someone to talk to about personal problems, having help with household tasks, ask advice, etc.
Social companionship—having someone to do things with (physical presence required)
Social support helps people in times of stress (buffering hypothesis); social companionship leads to general well-being (direct effects hypothesis)

28. Matching hypothesis
You need to match the particular type of social support you need to the particular problem.
A problem that can be solved needs practical types of social support
A problem that can’t be solved needs emotional support

29. Male/female differences
Men are more problem-focused than women.
Men rely on wives/girlfriends for emotional support; women rely on female friends.
Men and women often mistake the type of support needed (e.g., men offering pratical advice for emotional problems)

30. One friend vs. many
Beneficial effects of social support are not necessarily cumulative
Having just one close friend is enough.
Having social networks that are too “dense” (too many people) may make stress worse. Too much advice, interference = more stress

31. Men vs. women: Social networks
Women have broader and denser social networks than men do.
Women receive more support, more likely to have a “best friend”
Women benefit more—physically and psychologically—from friendships (life expectancy is greater, depression & anxiety lower from having large social networks)
Men benefit more from marriage. Losing a spouse is worse for men than for women.

32. Negative social support
Having too many friends means more caregiver burden—too many friends to take care of. This can cause stress.
Sometimes we receive “social support” that doesn’t help…it only hurts (e.g., saying the wrong thing after a miscarriage)
Having too many friends can cause you to become overly dependent on others & lower your self-worth.

33. Personality Factors in Health

34. Optimism: A Definition
Defined as the expectations that good things will happen in the future & bad things will not.
Bad events are explained as due to unstable, external, & specific causes (instead of stable, internal, global causes)

35. Findings associated with Optimism
Associated with psychological & physical well-being, longer life (average of 7.5 years)
Optimism seems to be stable over time; pessimism changes, especially for males. Males get more pessimistic over time.
Associated with more problem-focused coping, less use of denial, more seeking of social support, and emphasizing the positive aspects of a stressor.

36. Extraversion
Extraverts are outgoing, social, assertive, often leaders, have many friends, high levels of energy, & seek a high level of stimulation.
Correlated with psychological and physical well-being.
Lower rates of both major and minor illnesses.
Knowing how extraverted a person is predicts how happy h/she will be 10 years later.

37. Conscientiousness
Conscientious people are hardworking, motivated, persistent, show high levels of self-restraint, and focus intently on goals. Very organized and responsible.
One longitudinal study of over 1000 children starting in 1922 has linked conscientiousness to better health over time. It was the only personality variable to be associated with better health.

38. Locus of Control
Internal LOC: believe that they’re personally responsible for their life’s outcomes; fate has nothing to do with it.
External LOC: believe that their outcomes are due to luck, chance, or some other external cause.
Internals are more successful in all areas except one—coping with a terminal disease diagnosis. Here, externals have the advantage.

39. Hardiness
A construct describing people who are able to withstand stress without becoming ill.
Kobasa (1979)—studied executives for 3 years & found that executives 1) expressed stronger commitment to themselves; 2) had an internal LOC; 3) viewed necessary readjustments as a challenge, not a threat.
Effects of hardiness were highest when stress levels were highest.

40. More about Hardiness and LOC
Hardy people and those with internal LOC experience better psychological and physical well-being.
They suffer less depression in response to major illnesses.
Perception of control may be especially important for helping people cope & stay healthy under times of high stress.
Hardiness may not generalize to women and other types of jobs besides executives.

41. Neuroticism/Negative Affect
Neuroticism—tendency of people to experience negative emotions (distress, anxiety, nervousness, fear, shame, anger, guilt) often. Often in a bad mood.
They worry about things in the future, dwell on past failures, & have unfavorable view of self and others.
Associated with hypochondriasis (reporting frequent, especially severe symptoms)

42. Pessimism
Tendency to explain negative events in your life in global, internal, stable terms
Pessimists have lower immune functioning.
Pessimism is associated with denial and distancing one’s self from the problem.
Tied to depression in middle age and to cancer mortality among the elderly.

43. Type A Behavior
Three characteristics: 1) high levels of time urgency (irritated, impatient); 2) strong competitive drive at work & play; 3) prone to experiencing anger/hostility
Associated with more minor illnesses such as coughs, allergies, headaches, asthma attacks, digestive problems, migraines
Type B: defined as absence of Type A symptoms; less driven, more easy-going & relaxed

44. Type A and Heart Disease
Some studies have shown that Type A’s are more prone to heart problems, but some recent studies contradict that.
Some studies have even found that Type B’s have higher mortality rates than Type A’s from heart disease.
Only hostility/anger (one of 3 components of Type A) is linked to heart disease.
Findings are still murky at this point.

45. Hostility/disagreeableness
Hostile people have the following traits:
often in bad moods; have negative expectations of relationships; think others are motivated by selfishness; expect others to deliberately hurt them; rude, uncooperative, aggressive.
Hostile people have poorer health—higher rates of hypertension, heart disease, and death.
More likely to have artery blockage in particular.

46. Is it better to express hostility or hold it in?
Although you’d think it would be better to “get it off your chest,” it’s actually LESS beneficial for your health if you express hostility.
Expressing anger is significantly associated with decline in your immune system and with cardiovascular problems.

47. Possible explanations for personality-health link
Personality might influence how much stress you experience or how much stress you perceive you’re experiencing. (E.g., Neurotic people are more easily stressed…by smaller things.)
Personality factors might impact coping strategies. Optimistic, hardy, internal LOC people are better copers.
Might impact social support—more pleasant people have more friends and support.

48. Personality-health link continued
Personality might influence health habits. Neurotic, negative, hostile, Type A people may be more likely to smoke, drink, eat unhealthy food, avoid exercise, etc. May be less willing to comply with doctor’s orders.
Personality might influence your physiological reaction to stress—including immune system response and cardiovascular response.
Personality-health link might be function of self-report (people with negative personality might simply complain more about health).

49. Can you change your personality?
No, not really, but there is some evidence that you can change the negative BEHAVIORS associated with your personality.
Takes training and hard work.

50. Is too much optimism a bad thing?
Possibly…there have been a few studies to indicate that optimism can be associated with risky health behavior, such as driving recklessly.
Optimistic people may be too careless with their health because they think nothing bad can happen to them.
In general, optimism is good for your health, but too much might backfire on you.