1. The Science Behind the Practice
Reading Theory
The Science Behind the Practice

2. If you were on an island and could only bring two books . . .

3. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology is a branch of psychology
which explores mental processes, such as memory and recall, learning, thought, and perception.
It explains the connection between internal mental processes and actions/behaviors in the outside world.

4. Origins
Frank Smith: Understanding Reading (1971) launched new interest in process of reading.
Lots of speculation using current psychological theory, e.g., Information theory.
Accomplished (adult) readers work from context and don’t “decode”.
Top-Down
We read to confirm and predict coming text.
Fed into “Whole Language Learning”

5. Whole Language Learning
Learning is child-centered.
Teacher is empowered.
Reading is naturally acquired, just like spoken language.
Decoding (phonics) inhibits successful readers.
Words recognized as wholes, not decoded.
Context allows understanding.
Children learn best by integrating reading and writing.
Reading is for real-world tasks.
Reading must be compelling.

6. Whole Language Learning
Learning is child-centered.
Teacher is empowered.
Reading is naturally acquired, just like spoken language.
Decoding (phonics) inhibits successful readers.
Words recognized as wholes, not decoded.
Context allows understanding.
Children learn best by integrating reading and writing.
Reading is for real-world tasks.
Reading must be compelling.

7. Keith Stanovich Stanovich, Progress in Understanding Reading (2000)
Worked to validate Smith’s conjectures with Richard West.
Inspired by lofty goal of enabling all to read.
Ran into problems with Top-Down.
Continued to try to weed out variables.
Science vs. Philosophy
Scientific disagreements end amicably.
“The Reading Wars”
“The Meme Wars”

8. Reading Theory Top ê Bottom é
Knowledge of the World – understanding of how entities fit into world, routines, schemata
Pragmatics and Discourse –recognizing and following organization of info.; relationship with writer.
Syntax – recognize word combinations into meaningful expressions
Morphology – identify parts of speech, case, number, tense, person, etc.
Phonology – recognize letter(combinations) as representing sounds to form words
Bottom é
* Integrated and all levels is the meaning of individual words and the overall state of affairs represented by their combination.
Fig. 1: Levels of Information Employed in Reading *S E M A N T I C S

9. Interactive-Compensatory Model (Stanovich 1984)
Readers are constantly using a combination of Top-Down and Bottom-Up strategies to negotiate meaning.
The successful readers prioritize Bottom-Up.
Must interpret in context-independent environment.
For English = Phonics
For Latin Morphology – Syntax – Semantics
What do I see? What do I have? What do I expect?
Not all one way; both must interact

10. The Big Three for Latin Morphology Syntax Semantics
Fig. 2: The Levels Most Relevant to Latin

11. The Big Three for Latin Morphology Syntax Semantics arms ____ or
arma: n. nom./acc. pl.
arms ____ or
____ ___ arms
Subject or Object
Fig. 2: The Levels Most Relevant to Latin

12. The Big Three for Latin Morphology Syntax Semantics _ _ arms and man
arma virumque: nouns acc. pl.
_ _ arms and man
Two Objects
Fig. 2: The Levels Most Relevant to Latin

13. The Big Three for Latin Morphology Syntax Semantics
arma virumque cano: nouns acc. pl.
verb, 1st sg. pres. act.
Objects, main-clause verb,
Ø:Subject = I
I sing arms and man
Fig. 2: The Levels Most Relevant to Latin

14. Interactive-Compensatory Model Must be Interactive!
Hic, ubi disiectas moles avulsaque saxis
saxa vides, mixtoque undantem pulvere fumum,
Neptunus muros magnoque emota tridenti
fundamenta quatit totamque a sedibus urbem
eruit. Hic Iuno Scaeas saevissima portas
prima tenet (Verg. A )
2013 AP® Latin Exam Q1

15. Interactive-Compensatory Model Must be Interactive!
Primis tenebris silentio mota castra; boues aliquanto ante signa acti. Vbi ad radices montium uiasque angustas uentum est, signum extemplo datur, ut accensis cornibus armenta in aduersos concitentur montes (Liv )
What kind of oxen did Hannibal have at Ager Falernus?

16. Sight Constructions
A.) vī – ablative sing. noun “by force”
B.) venerunt – 3rd plural perfect verb “(they) came”
C.) Troianōs tum Italiam venisse – indirect statement “Trojans then came (had come) to Italy”
D.) signō a centurionibus datō – ablative absolute
”with the sign given by the centurions”

17. Reading Theory Findings
Great overview:
“The Matthew Effect:” [Mt ] When it comes to reading, the rich get richer. – Increase print-exposure (reading) = increased vocab = increased reading (Stanovich 1986) N.B. Reading Method
“Reading Makes You Smarter.” Acquisition of vocabulary gives you “more tools in the toolkit,” but that isn’t the end!
The process of reading, not just the acquisition of words and facts increases critical reasoning ability. “A boy has a candy bar ” (Olson 1986)

18. Findings on the Process
Reading is strategic:
anticipation
selection of key information
organize information mentally
correct/repair misunderstanding (Grabe 2009)
Is critical thinking connection so surprising?
matrem aliquis videt?
matrem vocare aliquis vult?
matrem vocare pueros aliquis dicit?

19. Findings on the Process
Recognition of not only orthographic forms (words), but also morphological forms and how they modify meanings is crucial for comprehension (Cunningham, Perry, and Stanovich 2001).
matrem aliquis videt?
matrem vocare aliquis vult?
matrem vocare pueros aliquis dicit?

20. Findings on the Process
Word recognition does not equal comprehension, but reading comprehension not possible without word recognition (Stanovich 2000)
Word recognition involves interaction of orthographic signaling, phonological activation, syntactic processes, and semantic processes (Perfetti 2007).
Implications for vocabulary quizzing?

21. Visual, Oral, Aural?
N.B. Context overused by weak readers, but this has narrow vocabulary scope.

22. Quizzing?
Involves interaction of orthographic signaling, phonological activation,
syntactic processes, and semantic processes?

23. Reading Theory on Grammar
Learners need to attend to new words accurately (morphology) (Perfetti 2007). Need substantial practice reading with limited new words (cf. organization by frequency).
L2 readers require a simple foundation in L2 grammar, because it transmits basic textual info, e.g., time of action, roles of participants, etc.
Grammar is not abstract set of rules, but a major discourse signaling system: Who is doing the action? When is subordinate information over, etc.?
Grammar should not be taught unless it is salient in text and reinforced frequently right away. Otherwise, there is little effect. (Grabe 2009) (cf., Wheelock, Chapter 1).

24. Critical Cognitive Systems
Learning to read uses two systems
Implicit Learning
“Incremental growth of habitual associative knowledge, the tacit learning of co-occurrence patterns in the input we perceive.”
Explicit Learning
“Conscious attention to and awareness of, the specific skills or language knowledge that a reader is focusing on.”

25. Explicit Learning
Needs rehearsal in working memory to be integrated into LTM and reactivated later.
Raising input to the level of conscious attention creates strong new patterns that can be stored in networks of episodic memory.
Explicitly learned material is extremely fragile unless recalled promptly and used multiple times. (Basic pedagogy)
In L2 explicit learning needs to be salient and repeated to overcome highly practiced and successful L1 processes.
Explicit learning is especially important for a.) resolving ambiguities and b.) monitoring
(Ellis 2006)

26. Overcome fragility with exposure
Independent subjunctives? Target rich environment?

27. Explicit Learning Helps Ambiguities and Monitoring
Caes. Gal. 1.2
Apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit et ditissimus Orgetorix. Is M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus regni cupiditate inductus coniurationem nobilitatis fecit et civitati persuasit ut de finibus suis cum omnibus copiis exirent
qua ex parte homines bellandi cupidi magno dolore adficiebantur.
At what point do I know the case/function for sure?

28. Explicit Learning Helps Ambiguities and Monitoring
Cambridge Latin Course4, Unit 4, Stage 38
interea totam domum nostram video ad nuptiâs meâs odiosâs pararî.
At what point do I know the case/function for sure?

29. Grammar Building Comprehension
Grammar is not an as-needed resource.
Grammar is employed in almost every second of fluent reading.
Syntactic processing enables disambiguation, tracking referents, default processing.
Recognition of words are recognized and processing of syntax allows readers to construct the meaning of clauses and sentences.
(Kintsch 1998, 2001)

30. Grammar as Participant Tracking
In English shifts in the main topic of discussion are marked by Noun Phrase (NP) subjects vs. pronoun subjects.
The teacher entered the room. She called the roll and began the day’s lesson. She kept moving through the material until the door opened. The principal then entered and said there was some good news.

31. Grammar as Participant Tracking
In Latin a sustained topic is indicated by gapping, i.e., an unexpressed subject.
ille Sychaeum
impius ante aras atque auri caecus amore
clam ferro incautum superat, securus amorum 350
germanae; factumque diu celavit et aegram
multa malus simulans vana spe lusit amantem.
ipsa sed in somnis inhumati venit imago
coniugis ora modis attollens pallida miris;
crudeles aras traiectaque pectora ferro 355
nudavit, caecumque domus scelus omne retexit.
tum celerare fugam patriaque excedere suadet
auxiliumque viae veteres tellure recludit
thesauros, ignotum argenti pondus et auri.
(Verg. Aen )

32. Gapping as Participant Tracking
Caes. Gal. 1.1
Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum, attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum, vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur, pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni, spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.

33. Gapping as Participant Tracking
Caes. Gal. 1.1
Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt.
Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt.
Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum, attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum, vergit ad septentriones.
Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur, pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni, spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem.
Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.

34. What grammatical knowledge contributes
Main clause vs. subordinate clause
Main referents
Word-order constraints
Constraining ambiguity

35. Can you track this mentally?
Aug. RG.pr.
Rerum gestarum divi Augusti, quibus orbem terrarum imperio populi Romani subiecit, et impensarum quas in rem publicam populumque Romanum fecit, incisarum in duabus aheneis pilis, quae sunt Romae positae, exemplar subiectum.

36. Visualization of Grammar
LiveCode Vocabulary Exercise (Julian Morgan)

37. What about This?

38. Empirically demonstrated multiple strategies for comprehension (Grabe 2009)
Summarizing
Forming Questions
Answering Questions and Elaborative Interrogation
Activating prior knowledge
Monitoring comprehension
Using text structure awareness
Using visual graphics and graphic organizers
Inferencing