1. Prepared by Jeffrey W. Grimm Western Washington University
PowerPoint Presentation for Biopsychology, 9th Edition by John P.J. Pinel
Prepared by Jeffrey W. Grimm
Western Washington University
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2. Fear, the Dark Side of Emotion
Chapter 17
Biopsychology of Emotion, Stress, and Health
Fear, the Dark Side of Emotion
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Learning Objectives
LO1: Summarize the major events in the history of research on the biopsychology of emotion.
LO2: Discuss the facial expression of emotions.
LO3: Describe types of aggressive and defensive behaviors and their dependence on testosterone.
LO4: Explain fear conditioning and its neural mechanisms.
LO5: Discuss current knowledge of the brain mechanisms of human emotion.
LO6: Summarize the effects of stress on health.
LO7: Describe the immune system and how immune function is influenced by stress.
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4. Biopsychology of Emotion: Introduction
Phineas Gage
Why would a tamping iron through the skull lead to dramatic changes in personality?
Damage to the Medial Prefrontal Lobes
Site of planning and emotion
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FIGURE 17.1 A reconstruction of the brain injury of Phineas Gage. The damage focused on the medial prefrontal lobes. (Based on Damasio, H., Grabowski, T., Frank, R., Galaburda, A.M., and Damasio, A.R. (1994). The return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. Science, 264, )
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6. Darwin’s Theory of the Evolution of Emotion
Expressions of emotion evolve from behaviors that indicate what an animal is likely to do next.
If emotional signals are beneficial, they will evolve to more effectively communicate and may lose their original meaning.
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7. Evolution of Emotional Expression (Con’t)
Opposite messages are often signaled by opposite movements; this is referred to as the principle of antithesis.
Threat displays, for example, are beneficial—intimidate victims without the costs and risks of fighting.
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FIGURE 17.2 Two woodcuts from Darwin’s 1872 book, The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, that he used to illustrate the principle of antithesis. The aggressive posture of dogs features ears forward, back up, hair up, and tail up; the submissive posture features ears back, back down, hair down, and tail down.
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Theories of Emotion
James-Lange
Stimulus triggers autonomic/skeletal response which triggers emotion.
Autonomic/skeletal response is necessary for emotion.
Cannon-Bard
Stimulus triggers autonomic/skeletal response and emotion.
Autonomic/skeletal response is independent of emotion.
Both are wrong.
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FIGURE 17.3 Four ways of thinking about the relations among the perception of emotion-inducing stimuli, the autonomic and somatic responses to the stimuli, and the emotional experience.
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Sham Rage
Decorticated cats exhibit extreme and unfocused aggressive responses.
The hypothalamus must be intact.
Perhaps the hypothalamus is needed for expression of aggression and the cortex serves to inhibit and direct responses.
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12. Limbic System and Emotion
Papez proposed an emotional circuit (limbic system) that includes the hypothalamus.
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FIGURE 17.4 The location of the major limbic system structures. In general, they are arrayed near the midline in a ring around the thalamus. (See also Figure 3.28 on page 71.)
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Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
Kluver-Bucy syndrome is a rare cerebral neurological disorder.
Major symptoms include the urge to put objects into one’s mouth, memory loss, extreme sexual behavior, placidity, and visual distractibility.
Kluver-Bucy results from bilateral damage to anterior temporal lobes.
It was first seen in monkeys, and subsequently in other species (including humans).
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15. Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Two Important Questions
Which patterns of ANS activity are associated with specific emotions?
Are ANS measures effective on polygraph (“lie detector”)?
There is not a separate ANS profile for each emotion.
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Polygraphy
Lie detection is really emotion detection.
Control-Question Technique
Physiological response to a target question compared with response to control question
Success rate in studies is about 80 percent.
Guilty Knowledge Technique
Merely ask a question that only the culprit would know the answer to.
Success rate in distinguishing guilty vs. innocent is 88 percent in one study.
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17. Emotions and Facial Expression
The meanings of facial expressions appear to be universal.
Six Primary Emotions
Naturally occurring expressions are usually variations or combinations of the basic ones.
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FIGURE 17.5 Ekman’s six primary facial expressions of emotion and one combination facial expression. (Generously supplied by Kyung Jae Lee and Stephen DiPaola of the iVizLab, Simon Fraser University. The expressions were created in video game character style using
FaceFx 3D software, which allows DiPaola and Lee to create and control facial expressions of emotion in stills and animated sequences; see ivizlab.sfu.ca).
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19. Emotions and Facial Expression (Con’t)
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Smiling makes you happier; facial muscles influence emotional experience.
Microexpressions: brief facial expressions reveal true feelings and may break through false ones.
Different muscles are involved in fake and real smiles.
Current perspective: body cues also play a major role in expression of emotion.
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20. Fear, Defense, and Aggression
Fear: emotional reaction to threat
Aggressive behaviors: designed to threaten or harm
Defensive behaviors: designed to protect from threat or harm (motivated by fear)
Social aggression: unprovoked attacks on members of one’s own species; intended to establish dominance
Defensive attack: aggressive behavior, as when cornered
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21. Types of Aggressive and Defensive Behaviors
Colony–Intruder Model of Aggression and Defense in Rats
Study interaction between alpha male of an established colony and a small male intruder
Observation of Cats and Mice
Cat “play” with prey is actually a combination of attack and defense behaviors.
Target-site concept: aggressive behaviors designed to attack specific sites on body; defensive to protect specific sites
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22. Aggression and Testosterone (T)
Nonprimates
T release around the birth of male rats prepares them for T-activated social aggression at maturity.
T increases or has no effect on social aggression, depending on species; castration decreases or has no effect on social aggression in same species.
In humans, social aggression does not increase along with higher T levels at puberty.
In humans, most aggressive outbursts are defensive attack (not T related), not social aggression.
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23. Aggression and Testosterone (Con’t)
Social Aggression in Humans
Does not decrease with castration or increase with testosterone injections
Violent criminals and aggressive male athletes may have high testosterone levels, but this may be the result (not cause) of aggressive behavior.
Possible Sources of Discrepancies in Human Studies
Measured blood testosterone level; should measure brain- part testosterone levels
Failure of researchers to distinguish between social aggression (testosterone-related, for establishing dominance) and defensive aggression (e.g., when cornered)
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24. Neural Mechanisms of Fear Conditioning
Pair a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) with an aversive stimulus (e.g., a shock).
Present the tone later and the animal will show a conditioned fear response.
Usually a defensive behavior
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25. Amygdala and Fear Conditioning
Lesions of the amygdala block fear conditioning.
The amygdala receives input from all sensory systems.
Appears to be responsible for adding emotional significance to another stimulus
The amygdala projects to brainstem regions that control emotional behavior output .
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FIGURE 17.9 The structures thought to mediate the sympathetic and behavioral responses conditioned to an auditory conditional stimulus.
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27. Contextual Fear Conditioning and the Hippocampus
Pair an aversive stimulus with the context instead of with a discrete stimulus.
The hippocampus is linked to spatial memory.
Effect of bilateral hippocampal lesions on contextual fear conditioning
Before training: prevents conditioning
Shortly after training: blocks retention of conditioning
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28. Amygdala Complex and Fear Conditioning
Current synthesis of findings indicates that the lateral amygdala is most critical in conditioned fear.
In addition, conditioned fear is suppressed by the prefrontal cortex inhibiting the lateral amygdala.
The hippocampus mediates conditioned fear learning by informing the lateral amygdala about the context of the fear-related event.
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29. Brain Mechanisms of Human Emotion
Cognitive neuroscience is a current approach to study human emotion.
Brain activity associated with emotion is diffuse.
Emotion, including empathy, is correlated with activity in motor and sensory cortices.
Similar brain activity is associated with experienced emotion, imagined emotion, or observation of someone experiencing an emotion.
May indicate a mirror-like system in the brain
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FIGURE Horizontal, sagittal, and coronal functional MRIs show areas of increased activity in the primary motor cortex (M1) and the premotor cortex (PMC) when volunteers watched facial expressions of emotion. The same areas were active when the volunteers made
the expressions themselves. (From Carr et al., 2003.)
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31. Amygdala and Human Emotion
Amygdalas in humans appear to have a more general role in emotions, not just in fear.
The amygdala appears to play a role in evaluating the emotional significance of situations.
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32. Medial Profrontal Lobes and Human Emotion
Emotion and cognition are better studied as components of the same system.
Medial portions of the prefrontal lobes are sites of emotion–cognition interaction.
Medial prefrontal lobes are active during either emotional suppression or reappraisal paradigms.
Many other roles for this area in emotion have been suggested; likely it performs many functions.
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33. Lateralization of Emotion
Early theories of lateralization may have been too general.
Asymmetry of facial expression studies indicate that a majority of people have right-hemisphere dominance for facial expressions.
Similar in monkeys
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FIGURE The asymmetry of facial expressions. Notice that the expressions are more obvious on the left side of two well-known faces: those of Mona Lisa
and Albert Einstein. The Einstein face is actually that of a robot that has been programmed to make natural facial expressions. (Right-hand image from Tingfan Wu,
Nicholas J. Butko, Paul Ruvulo, Marian S. Bartlett, Javier R. Movellan, “Learning to Make Facial Expressions,” devlrn, pp.1–6, 2009 IEEE 8th International Conference
on Development and Learning, © 2009 IEEE.)
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Current Perspectives
Emotional situations produce widespread activation in the brain, not just in the amygdala.
Brain areas activated by emotion are also activated by other psychological processes.
The same emotional stimuli often activate different areas in different people.
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Stress and Health
Stress: reaction to harm or threat
Stressors: stimuli that cause stress
Chronic psychological stress: most clearly linked to ill health
In the short-term, stress is adaptive; in the long-term, it is maladaptive.
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The Stress Response
Stress triggers stress hormones: anterior-pituitary adrenal-cortex system (glucocorticoids, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) and cytokines (causing inflammation and fever).
Selye neglected the sympathetic nervous system.
Individual differences, such as attitude, affect the magnitude of the stress response.
Example: women awaiting surgery who were “certain” they did not have breast cancer had milder stress than did others.
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FIGURE The two-system view of the stress response.
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39. Animal Models of Stress
Some early models used levels of stress that might not have a human equivalent.
Some more recent models use social stresses.
For example, subordination stress
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40. Psychosomatic Disorders: The Case of Gastric Ulcers
Gastric ulcers: lesions of stomach lining and duodenum
More common in those who are stressed, they are readily created in the animal lab.
Ulcers are caused by a bacteria; stress appears to makes the body vulnerable to this bacteria.
75 percent of healthy subjects have the bacteria.
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41. Psychoneuroimmunology: Stress, the Immune System, and the Brain
Study of the Interaction of Psychological Factors, the Nervous System, and the Immune System
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Immune System
Divisions of the Mammalian Immune System
Innate immune system
First line of defense
Attacks generic classes of pathogens
Adaptive immune system
Targets specific pathogens identified by their antigens
Has memory (the basis of effectiveness of vaccination)
Cytokines activate lymphocytes (white blood cells).
Cell-mediated (T lymphocytes)
Antibody-mediated (B lymphocytes)
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What Effect Does Stress Have on Immune Function: Disruptive or Beneficial?
Effects of stress on immune function depends on the kind of stress.
Acute stressors improve immune function.
Chronic stressors impair immune function.
Stress can impact immune function in many ways.
Effects of stress can be good (adaptive and healthful), bad, or mixed.
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44. Early Experience of Stress
Stress or mistreatment early in life may cause brain and endocrine abnormalities later in life.
Rat pups handled by researchers had more adaptive stress response in adulthood (less circulating glucocorticoids following stress), probably due to less negative feedback from hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors.
A good example of epigenetic (“not of the genes”) transmission: fearful, poor-grooming mothers raise daughters who become fearful, poor-grooming mothers.
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45. Stress and the Hippocampus
Hippocampus has many glucocorticoid receptors.
Following Stress
Dendrites of pyramidal cells are shorter and less branched.
Adult neurogenesis of granule cells is reduced.
Effects Blocked with Adrenalectomy; Produced with Corticosteroids
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